Test 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Anatomy
A
Study of the structure of the body parts and their relationship to one and another
Can be felt/you don’t have to imagine what they look like
2
Q
Gross/macroscopic anatomy
A
The study of large Body structures, visible when you get out, such as heart, thanks, and kidneys
3
Q
Regional anatomy
A
All the structures – muscles, bones, blood vessels, nerves and a particular region of the body
such as the abdomen or like, examined at the same time
4
Q
Surface anatomy
A
The study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface.
Use it to locate appropriate blood vessels to feel for pulses and to draw blood
5
Q
Systematic anatomy
A
Body structure Listing system a system.
Example – studying the cardiovascular system you exam in the heart and the blood vessels of the entire body
6
Q
Microscopic anatomy
A
Too small to be seen with the naked eye – slices a body tissues are staying in mounted on glass slides to be examined under the microscope
7
Q
Cytology
A
Cells of the body
8
Q
Histology
A
Study of the tissues
9
Q
Developmental anatomy
A
Traces structural changes that occur throughout the lifespan
10
Q
Embryology
A
A subdivision Add developmental anatomy, concerns developmental changes that occur before birth
11
Q
Pathological anatomy
A
Study structural changes caused by disease
12
Q
Radiographic anatomy
A
Studies internal structures as visualized by x-ray images for specialized scanning procedures
13
Q
Physiology
A
Function of the body another words how the body parts work together to carry out life sustaining activities explainable only in terms of the underlying anatomy. Explains electrical currents, blood pressure and the way muscles bones to carry body movements among other things
14
Q
Renal physiology
A
Concerns can you function and urine production
15
Q
Neurophysiology
A
Explains the workings of the nervous system
16
Q
Cardiovascular physiology
A
Examines the operation of the heart and blood vessels
17
Q
What is the order of the levels of structural organization
A
Chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system, organismal level
18
Q
Integumentary system
A
- hair skin nails
- forms external covering of the body, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesis vitamin D, and housed cutaneous (pain,pressure,etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands
19
Q
Skeletal system
A
- bones and joints
- Protects and supports body organs, and provide a framework muscles can use to cause movement. What cells are formed within the bounds.
- bones store minerals
20
Q
Muscular system
A
- skeletal muscle
- Allows manipulation of environment, look motion, and facial expression. Maintains posture and provides body heat
21
Q
Lymphatic system
A
- Red bone marrow, kindness, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes
- Picks up Flooring Reed from blood vessels and returns into the blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic system. House is white blood cells – lymphocytes – involved and immunity. The immune response mouthy attract against foreign substances within the body
22
Q
Respiratory system
A
Nasal cavity, pharynx,larynx, trachea,Kung, bronchus
Keeps blood consistently supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur throughout the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
23
Q
Digestive system
A
- oral cavity, liver, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus
- breaks down food into absorbable units to enter the blood for distribution to the body cells, indigestible foods are eliminated as fever.
24
Q
Nervous system
A
- Brain, spinal cord, nerves
- as the fast acting control system of the body, in response to internal and Internal changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
25
Endocrine system
Pineal gland ,thyroid plan, thyroid gland, tiredness, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovary, testis
Is that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, nutrient use(metabolism) by the body cells
26
Cardiovascular system
Heart and blood vessels
When does his transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, your dreams, faith. The heart pumps blood
27
Reproductive male
Prostate, penis, testis, scrotum, ductus deferens
Testis/ produce sperm and male sex hormone
Ductus deferens- aid in the delivery of the sperm
28
Reproductive female
Mammary glands in breast (produce milk to nourish newborn)
Ovary- produce eggs and female sec hormone
Uterus, vagina, uterine tubes- serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus
29
What are the eight functions necessary for life
Maintain boundaries, movement, responsiveness/excitability, digestion, metabolism, description, reproduction, growth
30
Carbohydrates
Major energy fuel for the body cells
31
Proteins/ fats
Essential for building cells
32
Fats
also provide a reserve of energy-rich fuel
33
How much of the body does water account for
65% -normal
45%-obese
75% –infants
34
What is normal body temperature
98.6 F
| 37C
35
Atmosphere pressure
Of course the air exerts on the surface of the body breathing and gas exchange in a long spend on atmospheric pressure
36
What is normal atmospheric pressure
1 atm
37
How are humans different from amoeba?
Humans are multicellular and Amobea are single cellular
38
What are specific to humans
Nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, atmospheric pressure
39
Lower atmosphere of pressure
Higher altitude’s – cares then, gas exchange of maybe an adequate to support cellular metabolism
40
What is the meaning of homeostasis?
Debility to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside changes continuously. The term does not mean I’m changing brother indicates dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance – conditions may vary but always with in relatively narrow limits
41
Negative feedback mechanism
The output shut up original affect the stimulus or reduces its intensity the mechanisms caused the variable change the direction opposite that the initial change returning to his ideal value
42
Body temperature regulation
* Control center – brain
* receptors- temperature sensitive cells in the brain
* effector – sweat gland
- When body temperature rises, the receptors tell the control center and the control center tells the sweat glands to activate evaporation of sweat and body temperature falls-stimulus ends
- when body temperature falls receptor is activated and tells the control center, the control center (the effector) and the body is signaled to shiver which in turn brings the body temperature down- stimulus ends
43
What is positive that mechanism? Give an example
Response so that the response – results proceed in the same direction of initial stimulus causing it to further from his original value.
Labor, blood clotting
44
Homeostatic imbalance
So important That most diseases can be a result of its disturbance. As we age our bodies control systems become less and less efficient in our internal alarm it becomes less stable. He’s a month increase our risk her illness and produce the changes we associate with aging
45
Matter
Anything that occupies space and has mass. With some exceptions it can be smelled and felt
46
What are the different states of matter? And give an example
* Solid-bones and teeth/Definite shape and volume
* Liquid – blood plasma have a definite volume but not shape.
* Gas – neither definite shape or volume and we breathe
47
Elements
Make up all matter-unique substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods. Among the known elements are oxygen, carbon, gold, silver, copper,iron
48
What is the purest form of matter?
Elements
49
Atoms
Smalls – identical particles or building blocks that form together to form an element
50
One of the most abundant elements?
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
51
C
Carbon atomic number=6
52
H
Hydrogen-atonic #1
53
O
Oxygen-atomic #8
54
N
Nitrogen atomic # 7
55
Kinetic energy
Energy in action
56
Potential energy
Stored energy that is an active energy that has the potential or capability to do work but it’s not. When potential energy is released it becomes kinetic energy
57
What are the forms of energy
Chemical energy, electrical energy, mechanical energy, radiant energy/electromagnetic radiation
58
What are the four most common elements of the human body?
Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen Dash make up about 96% of living matter. 20 others are present in the body, some interest amounts.
59
Nucleus
Central unit containing protons and neutrons tightly bound together. Surrounded by orbiting electrons
60
Protons
P+ positive electrical charge
61
Neutrons
N0Are neutral so that the nucleus is possibly charged overall
62
Electrons
e-Very negative charge for and strength to the positive charge for proton.
Electron only has about 1/2000 the mass of a proton
63
What are isotopes and what are they used for in medicine?
And isotope is a different kind of atom of the same element where the number of neutrons in the nucleus varies, sometimes radioactive
Used in x-rays and medical tests using radioisotopes to drink so that different things show up on the scans.
64
what is the number of electrons required to fill the first three shells?
shell 1= 2 electrons
shell 2=8 electrons
shell 3=8 electrons
65
what is the outer most shell called?
valance shell
66
How can you predict whether electrons will be lost, gained, or shared in a chemical reaction?
looking at the outermost shell. if there are less than 8 more than likely you will gain and if there are more than 8 you are more than like to loose.
67
octet rule
rule f eight- except for shell 1 which is full when it has 2 electrons. atoms tend to interact in such a way that they have 8 electrons in their valance shell
68
will atomic weight or mass change?
weight
69
ion
when an atom is transferred from one atom to another when this happens, the precise balance of the + and - charge is lost so that charged particles called ions are formed.
70
cation
the atom that loses one or more atoms, it requires a net positive charge
71
anion
the atom that gains one or more atoms, it acquires a negative charge
72
Ionic bond
chemical bond between atoms formed by the transfer of one or more electron from one atom to another.
Because opposite changes attract these ions tend to stay close together resulting in a bond.
73
How strong is an ionic bond?
easily broken "hookup"
example: table salt- can be broken up in a grinder or dissolves and separates in water.
74
what happens in an ionic bond?
Transfer of an electron
75
electron acceptor
atom that gains one or more electrons. it acquires a negative charge and is called an anion
76
electron donor
the atom that loses one or more atoms, it acquires a net positive charge is called a cation
77
covalent bonds
electrons do not have to be completely transferred for atoms to achieve stability. instead they may be shared so that each atom is able to fill their utter shell atlas part of the time.
78
are covalent bonds strong?
yes strong and flexible "marriage"
79
nonpolar covalent bond
equal sharing- the shared electrons shared euqually between the atoms of the molecule for the most part are electrically balanced
CO2
80
Polar covalent bond
unequal sharing- molecules shape helps to determine what other molecules or atoms it can interact with. it may also result in unequal electron sharing.
H2O
81
Hydrogen bonds
has to have hydrogen- more like attractions rather than true bonds.
form when a hydrogen atom, already linked to one electronegative atom (usually nitrogen or oxygen) is attached by another electron-hungry atom, so that a bridge forms between them.
82
where are hydrogen bonds common?
dipoles such as a water molecule
83
intramolecular bonds
hold different pars of single large molecule in specific three- dimensional shape.
84
are hydrogen bonds strong?
No- "singer couple"
85
compound
made up of two or more elements
86
inorganic compound
do not contain carbon
87
what is the one exception for an inorganic compound?
CO2
88
organic compound
contain carbon, usually are large covalently bonded
89
molecule
are made up of two or more atoms
90
water is formed by what kind of bond between hydrogen and oxygen?
hydrogen bond
91
why is water a good solvent?
water dissolves almost everything.
92
what are the four major types of chemical reactions
synthesis
decomposition
exchange
reversible
93
synthesis
A+B-AB
94
decomposition
AB-A+B
95
exchange
AB+CD-AD+CB
96
reversible
A+B-AB and AB-B+A
97
Acids
hydrogen ions H-
98
Basis
Hydroxide ions OH+
99
Salts
ionic compound containing cations other than H+ and anions other than hydroxyl ions (OH-)
100
electrolyte
substances that conduct electrical current in solution, all the acids and bases have them. (conductive)
101
PH scale
moving up in a positive-negative 10-fold
102
what is bloods normal PH?
7.5
103
Alkalosis
more basic lower than 7.4
104
Acidosis
more acidic above 7.4
105
what is an example of alkalosis?
Panic attatch
106
what is an example of acidosis
cannot breathe therefore co2 and does not exchange
107
What are the four major categories of organic compounds?
Carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acids
108
Lipid structure
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
109
Protein structure
carbon,hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus
110
what are the three categories of carbohydrates?
Monoccharides, disaccharide, polysaccharides
111
monosaccaride
glucose
3 carbon- triode- cellular respiration
5 carbon- pentose- important for DNA
112
Disaccharide
Lactose/ Sucrose
| 6 carbon sugars linked by covalent bond crated by a dehydration synthesis reaction.
113
Glucose+ Fructose
Sucrose-table sugar
114
Glucose+Glactose
Lactose (milk)
115
Polysaccharide
Carbohydrates
| consists of many sugar subunits linked by covalent bonds created by dehydration synthesis
116
Cellulose
most abundant carbohydrate in the world- structural support in plants which provide dietary fiber in animals
117
Starch
Plants- storage of energy
118
Glycogen
animals- storage of energy
119
What do polymers start off as before it becomes a chain?
monomer
120
Monomer of a carbohydrate
monosaccharides
121
monomer of nucleonic acids
nucleotides
122
monomer of protein
Amino Acids
123
monomer of lipids
Fatty Acids
124
what are three different categories of lipids discussed in class?
Triglycerides, Phospholipids, steroids
125
what are lipids?
a group of organic chemicals that are insoluble in water
126
what atoms are found in lipids
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and in many cases phosphorus
127
Triglycerides
energy source, insulation, protection and may be used to make cholesterol
128
saturated fatty acid-
linked carbon- carbon bonds where hydrogen fills the remaining bonds
129
unsaturated fatty acids
one or more double bonds between carbon so that hydrogen cannot fill all remaining bonds
130
what is the healthier of saturated and unsaturated fat?
unsaturated fat
131
Unsaturated fat
are oils which the body can benefit from especially monounsaturated fats- olive oil, canola oil- protection of heart and brain
132
saturated fat
solid fat which in the body in excess can cause obesity- butter/ lard
133
phospholipid
1 glycerol+2 fatty acids + phosphate group
Phosphate makes it hydrophilic
Fatty acid part remains hydrophobic
134
what is the benefit of phospholipids having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic characteristics?
perfect for the phospholipid bilayer for the cell membrane
135
Steroids
consists of four carbon rings modified with various functional groups.
136
what steroid is most important in our bodies?
cholesterol
137
cholesterol
is important for cell membrane structure and is it used to synthesize sex hormones and vitamins
138
Eicosanoids
signaling molecules made by the enzymatic or non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid or other polyunsaturated fatty acids.
139
What are the building blocks of proteins?
Amino Acids
140
what atoms are found in proteins?
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, an in many cases, sulfur
141
what are the functions of proteins
structural support, enzymes, energy source, chemical messengers, receptors, antibodies, transporters, hormones, contraction
142
what is the structure of peptide bond?
complex organic chemicals formed by peptide bonds between amino acids by dehydration synthesis
143
What are the four structures of protein?
Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
144
Primary Protein structure
linear chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
50-1000 amino acids there are mort than 200,000,000 in your body
145
Secondary Protein Structure
Alpha relics (ribbon) or bata plates sheets (folded pieces of paper)
hydrogen bonds form between amino acids other regions of the chain to form coils or pleated sheets
146
Tertiary protein structure
getting its 3d structure and be assigned its job based on shape
Hydrogen and covalent bonds between amino acids further apart in the chain causes peptide to have a 3d shape or conformation
147
why is the 3d shape important in proteins?
shape determines function threadlike vs. globulin
shape is also susceptible to denaturation from hear, radiation, ph changes, chemicals
148
Quaternary protein structure
can be denatured (unfolded due to radiation temp, ph changes, can cause denaturing
multiple polypeptide chains
149
what is an example of something that can denature proteins?
chemotherapy
150
what are the building blocks of nucleic acids?
nucleotides
151
what do nucleotides consist of?
A nitrogenous base attached to a pentose sugar attached to a phosphate
152
what are the function of nucleic acids?
carry instructions for controlling cellular activities and also carries energy
153
what atoms are found in nucleic acids?
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and in many cases phosphorus
154
how are nucleic acids formed
from phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides with dehydration synthesis
155
what are three different types types of nucleic acids?
DNA, RNA, ATP
156
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid- consists of nucleotides with deoxyribose sugar subunits
157
RDA
Ribonucleic acid- consists of nucleotides with ribose sugar subunits
158
ATP
Adenine Triphosphate
159
Compare and contrast DNA and RNA
DNA has a double strand -sugar with no oxygen an replicates itself. RNA single strand and has oxygen
160
How many songs are in the body?
75 trillion
161
What is the small cell in the human body
Red blood cell -7.5 micrometers
162
What is the largest sell in the human body?
Human ovum cell – 140 micrometers-barely visible to the eye
163
What is the longest sell in the human body?
Smooth muscle-20-500 micrometers long- very thin
164
Phospholipid bylayer
Is very flexible and some white elastic fluid like nature that makes up the cell membrane
165
Embedded proteins
Mosaic like floating raft in the sea
166
Receptor proteins
Receive and transmit messages into a cell
167
Integral protein
Form pours, channels and carries in cell membrane and converts signals
168
Enzymes
Catalase chemical reactions
169
Cellular adhesion molecules
Enable sales to stick to each other
170
Cell surface proteins
Glycocalyx- name tags
171
What are the cellular junctions?
Tight junctions, Desmosomes, gap junctions
172
Tight junctions
A specialized connection of two adjacent animal cell membranes such that the space usually line between them is absent like a Ziploc
173
Desmosomes
Molecular complexes of cell adhesion proteins and linking proteins that attach the cell surface adhesion proteins To intercellular keratin cytoskeletal filaments.-Zipper – distributing tension
174
Gap junctions
A specialized intracellular connection between a multitude of animal cells. They directly connect the cytoplasm of two cells, which allows various molecules, ions and electrical impulses to directly passed through a regular gate between cells – like windows and doors between rooms
175
Where are tight junctions found
And that epithelia cells that line the digestive track – keeping digestive enzymes in micro organisms in the intestine from seeping into the bloodstream for example you don’t want protein or sugar in your urine
176
Where are Desmosomes found
Found in heart muscle and skin
177
Where are gap junctions found
Found in excitable cells – like the heart and smooth muscles where I am Kim Hass to synchronize their electrical activity and connection
178
Nucleus
Stores, protects and repairs DNA, DNA replication takes place here
179
What are centrioles
Help the mitotic spindle in cell division. Also form the basis of Celia and flagella for movement of DNA during mitosis
180
What is RNA made from
DNA template
181
Mitochondrion
Cellular respiration – release energy from blood molecules and convert the energy into usable form
182
Does the mitochondrion contain DNA?
Yes it contains some DNA/RNA code necessary for its own function
183
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Contains ribosomes – place for protein synthesis
184
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Synthesizes lipids, absorbs fats, breaks down drugs
185
Golgi apparatus
Packages and modifies protein molecules for transport and secretion
186
Vesicle
Contain substances that recently entered the cell
| -store and transport newly synthesized molecules
187
Lysosomes
Contain enzymes capable of digesting worn cellular parts or substances that enter the cell
188
Peroxisomes
Contain enzymes Peroxidases important in the breakdown of many organic molecules
189
Plasma membrane
The flexible plasma membrane separates two of the bodies major fluid compartments intracellular fluid with the cells in the extracellular fluid outside the cells
190
Passive transport
Movement without using energy – high to low concentration
191
What are the three types of passive transport
Diffusion, osmosis, filtration
192
What is active transport
The movement of substances ion/large molecules across the membrane from an area of low concentration to high concentration with the help of ATP(energy)
193
What are the types of active transport
Primary active transport, secondary active transport, vesicles transport
194
Simple diffusion
Movies over substance from high to low concentration across a membrane – as long as the membrane is permeable to the substance
195
What’s an example of simple diffusion
Lipid soluble solutions
196
Facilitated diffusion
Movement Of substance from our area of low concentration to an area of high concentration through a protein channel
Occurs for ions trying to get through the hydrophobic region of the cell membrane – needs a hydrophilic protein channel
197
What’s an example of facilitated diffusion
Lipid insoluble solutions such as sugar/amino acids
198
Osmosis
Movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration across a selectively permeable membrane into an area where the solute cannot cross the membrane – area of high osmotic pressure
199
Where does osmosis take place in the body
In red blood cells
200
Filtration
Is our forced through membranes usually to separate larger molecules
201
Where would you see filtration in the human body
Blood pressure usually forces liquid and small solutes through the blood vessel membrane into the kidney nephron separating the fluid from the larger cells and proteins – you shouldn’t have protein and red blood cells in your urine
202
Hypotonic solutions
Solution that has a lower solute concentration then inside the cell
In the case of a red blood cell the cell would blow up
203
Hemolysis
Hypotonic red blood cell – blows up
204
Hypertonic
A solution with higher salt/solute concentrationThen inside the cell.
Water will rush out of the cell to try and balance it out
Causing crenation
205
Crenation
Shrinking of the red blood cell
206
Isotonic solution
When the solution is completely equal to the Cell all is balanced
207
Active transport
The movement of substances ions/large molecules across a membrane from an area of low concentration to high concentration with the help of ATP
208
Primary active transport
The entry is diverted directly from the breakdown of ATP
209
What is an example of primary active transport
Calcium and Nitrogen pumps the most studied pump located in the plasma membrane but especially active and excitable cells such as you’re nervous and muscle cells
Na+ and k+ pumps
210
Secondary active transport
The energy is derived secondarily from the energy that has been stored in the form of ionic concentration
Differences between the two sides of the membrane
211
What does secondary active transport depend on
The ion gradient that was created by the primary active transport and the energy stored ingredients as used in directly to drive transport of other solutes
212
Vascular transport
The movement of molecules between locations inside the cell
213
Endocytosis
Transport into the cell
214
Phagocytosis
Eating into the cell
215
Pinocytosis
Drinking water getting into the cell
216
Receptor mediated endocytosis
Medical transport via receptor mediated endocytosis – entry of large molecules into the cell through binding of a legend to a receptor on the cell possible legends include enzymes, low density lipoprotein’s, iron, insulin, and unfortunately viruses
217
Exocytosis
Transport out of the cell
218
What is an example of exocytosis
Proteins from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus
219
What are the phases of interphase
G1,G2, S phase
220
G1
Cell increases in size
221
G2
Organelles duplicate
222
S phase
DNA is duplicated
223
What are the phases of the mitotic phase
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
224
Where is the checkpoint during the cell cycle
Between interphase in the mitotic phase
225
What are the possible outcomes of the checkpoint between interphase and mitotic phase
- nothing
- continue cell cycle and divide
- die
226
Necrosis
Cell dies
227
What are the five mitotic phases
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
228
Mitosis
Division of the nucleus and somatic cells – non-sexual
Must be very precise said that new cell receives a complete copy of genetic information therefore many steps are needed
229
Cytokinesis
The division of cytoplasm at the end of mitosis/meiosis bringing about the separation into two daughter cells
230
Is there any content and cytoplasmic material divided equally by mitosis?
Do you need content as always divide it equally and cytoplasmic material is very similar in both sells
231
Prophase
Chromosomes condense and become visible
centrioles start to move to the opposite side
nucleus disappears
microtubules from near Centrosomes
Microtubule formation continues creating final fibers between the centrioles and the chromosomes at the kinetic core
Nuclear membrane dissolves
232
Metaphase
Chromosomes move along the spindle fibers and align himself midway between the centrioles
233
Anaphase
Kinetic cores attached to the spindle fibers causing the chromosomes to separate.
The spindle fiber shorten and pour the new individual chromosomes towards the centrioles
234
Telophase
Chromosomes in long gate at each pole of the cell and return to the chromatids state.
Nuclear envelope forms.
Microtubules disassemble
Cleavage Furrow forms
235
Gene
One of the biological units of hereditary located in the DNA, transmits hereditary information
236
Gnome
A complete set of chromosomes delivered from one parent or two sets of chromosomes. Example one set from the egg and one from the sperm cell – the diploid genome
237
Codon
For each triplet or three base sequence of DNA the corresponding three base sequence on mRNA
Triplet- TAC Codon-ATG
238
Anticodon
83 basic ones which binds to the mRNA codon calling for the amino acid and carried by that particular tRNA
239
How many genes are in the human genome?
20,000 genes and a set of 23 chromosomes
240
What is needed for DNA replication?
1. A bubble fork
2. And RNA primer
3. Enzymes
4. Telomere
241
What enzymes are needed for DNA replication?
Helicase, DNA polymerase, Ligase
242
What are the steps for DNA replication?
uncoiling
separation
assembly
restoration
243
What happens during the ongoing phase of DNA replication
Enzymes and wind the DNA molecule, forming a replication bubble
244
What happens during the separation phase of DNA replication?
The two DNA strand separate as the hydrogen bonds between base pairs are broken to the point at which strains and it is known as the replication fork
245
What happens during the assembly phase of DNA replication?
With the old parental strands acting as templates the enzyme DNA polymerase positions Completely free nucleotides along the template strand, called leading and lagging strand are synthesized into opposite directions. Two new daughter DNA molecules result from one parental DNA molecule cents each new molecule consists of one old and one new nucleotide strand the mechanism is known as semi conservative replication
246
What happens during the restoration phase of DNA replication
Ligase enzymes splice short segments of the DNA together restoring the double helix nature
247
When does DNA replication take place
During interphase during the S phase replication begins the DNA must be replicated before the second divine
248
What does the latter like structure tell us about DNA
The rails represent the sugar and phosphate backbone of two strands.
The rungs represent paired nitrogenous bases
249
How did the wrongs of the DNA stick together
Face complementation – the pairing that occurs between the chargers bases are hydrogen bonds
250
What are the types of bases in DNA
Purines- two carbon
Pyrimidines- one carbon
251
Purines
Adenine
Guanine
252
Pyrimidines
Thymine
Cytosine
253
What nucleotides bond together?
Adenine-Thymine
Guanine-cytosine
254
Is it easy to break hydrogen bonding?
Yes
255
Genetic Theory
Cessation Of mitosis and Cell Agent program in the genes
256
Telomeres
May determine the number of times I still can’t divide
Found a germ cells – absent an adult cells
found and cancerous cells
257
Telomerase
Lengthens telomeres
258
What is the central dogma
Describe the two-step process, transcription and translation by which the information in genes flows into proteins
DNA-RNA-Protein
259
How do you use this this modification to central dogma to achieve a protein
Triplet-codon-anticodon- amino acid
260
What are the two steps in protein synthesis?
Transcription and translation
261
Transcription
The process of copying DNA information
-triplets into RNA sequence containing codons. This occurs in the nucleus of the cell
262
What are the three phases of transcription?
Initiation, elongation, termination
263
Initiation-Transcription
The first phase of transcription – RNA polymerase separate DNA strands
264
Elongation-Transcription
Second phase of transcription – RNA polymerase as complementary nucleotides
265
Termination-Transcription
Third step of transcription – termination signal in DNA is recognized by RNA for the polymerase to stop adding nucleotides
266
Translation
Converting am RNA to protein – must follow the central dogma
267
What are the three phases of translation?
Initiation, elongation , termination
268
Initiation of translation
Phase 1 Dash ribosome binds to the mRNA
269
Elongation of translation
Brabazon recognize his codon and pears a coat on to the mRNA with anti-codon on a tRNA that has amino acid on the other end.
Peptide bond synthesis occurs between amino acid as the ribosome which recruits tRNA and peptide bond to from between the amino acids
This repeat until the end of the mRNA. The moving of Rabe zone during location is Cell translocation
270
Termination of translation
When I stop codon and the mRNA is recognized by the ribosome transcription ends and protein is released
271
How is rough endoplasmic reticulum involved in protein synthesis
Makes protein and ribosomes, protein synthesis happens in the rough ER
