Test 1 Flashcards
Anatomy
Study of the structure of the body parts and their relationship to one and another
Can be felt/you don’t have to imagine what they look like
Gross/macroscopic anatomy
The study of large Body structures, visible when you get out, such as heart, thanks, and kidneys
Regional anatomy
All the structures – muscles, bones, blood vessels, nerves and a particular region of the body
such as the abdomen or like, examined at the same time
Surface anatomy
The study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface.
Use it to locate appropriate blood vessels to feel for pulses and to draw blood
Systematic anatomy
Body structure Listing system a system.
Example – studying the cardiovascular system you exam in the heart and the blood vessels of the entire body
Microscopic anatomy
Too small to be seen with the naked eye – slices a body tissues are staying in mounted on glass slides to be examined under the microscope
Cytology
Cells of the body
Histology
Study of the tissues
Developmental anatomy
Traces structural changes that occur throughout the lifespan
Embryology
A subdivision Add developmental anatomy, concerns developmental changes that occur before birth
Pathological anatomy
Study structural changes caused by disease
Radiographic anatomy
Studies internal structures as visualized by x-ray images for specialized scanning procedures
Physiology
Function of the body another words how the body parts work together to carry out life sustaining activities explainable only in terms of the underlying anatomy. Explains electrical currents, blood pressure and the way muscles bones to carry body movements among other things
Renal physiology
Concerns can you function and urine production
Neurophysiology
Explains the workings of the nervous system
Cardiovascular physiology
Examines the operation of the heart and blood vessels
What is the order of the levels of structural organization
Chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system, organismal level
Integumentary system
- hair skin nails
- forms external covering of the body, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesis vitamin D, and housed cutaneous (pain,pressure,etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands
Skeletal system
- bones and joints
- Protects and supports body organs, and provide a framework muscles can use to cause movement. What cells are formed within the bounds.
- bones store minerals
Muscular system
- skeletal muscle
- Allows manipulation of environment, look motion, and facial expression. Maintains posture and provides body heat
Lymphatic system
- Red bone marrow, kindness, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes
- Picks up Flooring Reed from blood vessels and returns into the blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic system. House is white blood cells – lymphocytes – involved and immunity. The immune response mouthy attract against foreign substances within the body
Respiratory system
Nasal cavity, pharynx,larynx, trachea,Kung, bronchus
Keeps blood consistently supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur throughout the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
Digestive system
- oral cavity, liver, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus
- breaks down food into absorbable units to enter the blood for distribution to the body cells, indigestible foods are eliminated as fever.
Nervous system
- Brain, spinal cord, nerves
- as the fast acting control system of the body, in response to internal and Internal changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
Endocrine system
Pineal gland ,thyroid plan, thyroid gland, tiredness, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovary, testis
Is that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, nutrient use(metabolism) by the body cells
Cardiovascular system
Heart and blood vessels
When does his transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, your dreams, faith. The heart pumps blood
Reproductive male
Prostate, penis, testis, scrotum, ductus deferens
Testis/ produce sperm and male sex hormone
Ductus deferens- aid in the delivery of the sperm
Reproductive female
Mammary glands in breast (produce milk to nourish newborn)
Ovary- produce eggs and female sec hormone
Uterus, vagina, uterine tubes- serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus
What are the eight functions necessary for life
Maintain boundaries, movement, responsiveness/excitability, digestion, metabolism, description, reproduction, growth
Carbohydrates
Major energy fuel for the body cells
Proteins/ fats
Essential for building cells
Fats
also provide a reserve of energy-rich fuel
How much of the body does water account for
65% -normal
45%-obese
75% –infants
What is normal body temperature
98.6 F
37C
Atmosphere pressure
Of course the air exerts on the surface of the body breathing and gas exchange in a long spend on atmospheric pressure
What is normal atmospheric pressure
1 atm
How are humans different from amoeba?
Humans are multicellular and Amobea are single cellular
What are specific to humans
Nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, atmospheric pressure
Lower atmosphere of pressure
Higher altitude’s – cares then, gas exchange of maybe an adequate to support cellular metabolism
What is the meaning of homeostasis?
Debility to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside changes continuously. The term does not mean I’m changing brother indicates dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance – conditions may vary but always with in relatively narrow limits
Negative feedback mechanism
The output shut up original affect the stimulus or reduces its intensity the mechanisms caused the variable change the direction opposite that the initial change returning to his ideal value
Body temperature regulation
- Control center – brain
- receptors- temperature sensitive cells in the brain
- effector – sweat gland
- When body temperature rises, the receptors tell the control center and the control center tells the sweat glands to activate evaporation of sweat and body temperature falls-stimulus ends
- when body temperature falls receptor is activated and tells the control center, the control center (the effector) and the body is signaled to shiver which in turn brings the body temperature down- stimulus ends
What is positive that mechanism? Give an example
Response so that the response – results proceed in the same direction of initial stimulus causing it to further from his original value.
Labor, blood clotting
Homeostatic imbalance
So important That most diseases can be a result of its disturbance. As we age our bodies control systems become less and less efficient in our internal alarm it becomes less stable. He’s a month increase our risk her illness and produce the changes we associate with aging
Matter
Anything that occupies space and has mass. With some exceptions it can be smelled and felt
What are the different states of matter? And give an example
- Solid-bones and teeth/Definite shape and volume
- Liquid – blood plasma have a definite volume but not shape.
- Gas – neither definite shape or volume and we breathe
Elements
Make up all matter-unique substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods. Among the known elements are oxygen, carbon, gold, silver, copper,iron
What is the purest form of matter?
Elements
Atoms
Smalls – identical particles or building blocks that form together to form an element
One of the most abundant elements?
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
C
Carbon atomic number=6
H
Hydrogen-atonic #1
O
Oxygen-atomic #8
N
Nitrogen atomic # 7
Kinetic energy
Energy in action
Potential energy
Stored energy that is an active energy that has the potential or capability to do work but it’s not. When potential energy is released it becomes kinetic energy
What are the forms of energy
Chemical energy, electrical energy, mechanical energy, radiant energy/electromagnetic radiation
What are the four most common elements of the human body?
Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen Dash make up about 96% of living matter. 20 others are present in the body, some interest amounts.
Nucleus
Central unit containing protons and neutrons tightly bound together. Surrounded by orbiting electrons
Protons
P+ positive electrical charge
Neutrons
N0Are neutral so that the nucleus is possibly charged overall
Electrons
e-Very negative charge for and strength to the positive charge for proton.
Electron only has about 1/2000 the mass of a proton
What are isotopes and what are they used for in medicine?
And isotope is a different kind of atom of the same element where the number of neutrons in the nucleus varies, sometimes radioactive
Used in x-rays and medical tests using radioisotopes to drink so that different things show up on the scans.
what is the number of electrons required to fill the first three shells?
shell 1= 2 electrons
shell 2=8 electrons
shell 3=8 electrons
what is the outer most shell called?
valance shell
How can you predict whether electrons will be lost, gained, or shared in a chemical reaction?
looking at the outermost shell. if there are less than 8 more than likely you will gain and if there are more than 8 you are more than like to loose.
octet rule
rule f eight- except for shell 1 which is full when it has 2 electrons. atoms tend to interact in such a way that they have 8 electrons in their valance shell
will atomic weight or mass change?
weight
ion
when an atom is transferred from one atom to another when this happens, the precise balance of the + and - charge is lost so that charged particles called ions are formed.
cation
the atom that loses one or more atoms, it requires a net positive charge
anion
the atom that gains one or more atoms, it acquires a negative charge
Ionic bond
chemical bond between atoms formed by the transfer of one or more electron from one atom to another.
Because opposite changes attract these ions tend to stay close together resulting in a bond.
How strong is an ionic bond?
easily broken “hookup”
example: table salt- can be broken up in a grinder or dissolves and separates in water.
what happens in an ionic bond?
Transfer of an electron
electron acceptor
atom that gains one or more electrons. it acquires a negative charge and is called an anion
electron donor
the atom that loses one or more atoms, it acquires a net positive charge is called a cation
covalent bonds
electrons do not have to be completely transferred for atoms to achieve stability. instead they may be shared so that each atom is able to fill their utter shell atlas part of the time.
are covalent bonds strong?
yes strong and flexible “marriage”
nonpolar covalent bond
equal sharing- the shared electrons shared euqually between the atoms of the molecule for the most part are electrically balanced
CO2
Polar covalent bond
unequal sharing- molecules shape helps to determine what other molecules or atoms it can interact with. it may also result in unequal electron sharing.
H2O
Hydrogen bonds
has to have hydrogen- more like attractions rather than true bonds.
form when a hydrogen atom, already linked to one electronegative atom (usually nitrogen or oxygen) is attached by another electron-hungry atom, so that a bridge forms between them.
where are hydrogen bonds common?
dipoles such as a water molecule
intramolecular bonds
hold different pars of single large molecule in specific three- dimensional shape.
are hydrogen bonds strong?
No- “singer couple”
compound
made up of two or more elements
inorganic compound
do not contain carbon
what is the one exception for an inorganic compound?
CO2
organic compound
contain carbon, usually are large covalently bonded
molecule
are made up of two or more atoms
water is formed by what kind of bond between hydrogen and oxygen?
hydrogen bond
why is water a good solvent?
water dissolves almost everything.
what are the four major types of chemical reactions
synthesis
decomposition
exchange
reversible
synthesis
A+B-AB
decomposition
AB-A+B
exchange
AB+CD-AD+CB
reversible
A+B-AB and AB-B+A
Acids
hydrogen ions H-
Basis
Hydroxide ions OH+
Salts
ionic compound containing cations other than H+ and anions other than hydroxyl ions (OH-)
electrolyte
substances that conduct electrical current in solution, all the acids and bases have them. (conductive)
PH scale
moving up in a positive-negative 10-fold
what is bloods normal PH?
7.5
Alkalosis
more basic lower than 7.4
Acidosis
more acidic above 7.4
what is an example of alkalosis?
Panic attatch
what is an example of acidosis
cannot breathe therefore co2 and does not exchange
What are the four major categories of organic compounds?
Carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acids
Lipid structure
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Protein structure
carbon,hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus
what are the three categories of carbohydrates?
Monoccharides, disaccharide, polysaccharides
monosaccaride
glucose
3 carbon- triode- cellular respiration
5 carbon- pentose- important for DNA
Disaccharide
Lactose/ Sucrose
6 carbon sugars linked by covalent bond crated by a dehydration synthesis reaction.
Glucose+ Fructose
Sucrose-table sugar
Glucose+Glactose
Lactose (milk)
Polysaccharide
Carbohydrates
consists of many sugar subunits linked by covalent bonds created by dehydration synthesis
Cellulose
most abundant carbohydrate in the world- structural support in plants which provide dietary fiber in animals
Starch
Plants- storage of energy
Glycogen
animals- storage of energy
What do polymers start off as before it becomes a chain?
monomer
Monomer of a carbohydrate
monosaccharides
monomer of nucleonic acids
nucleotides
monomer of protein
Amino Acids
monomer of lipids
Fatty Acids
what are three different categories of lipids discussed in class?
Triglycerides, Phospholipids, steroids
what are lipids?
a group of organic chemicals that are insoluble in water
what atoms are found in lipids
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and in many cases phosphorus
Triglycerides
energy source, insulation, protection and may be used to make cholesterol
saturated fatty acid-
linked carbon- carbon bonds where hydrogen fills the remaining bonds
unsaturated fatty acids
one or more double bonds between carbon so that hydrogen cannot fill all remaining bonds
what is the healthier of saturated and unsaturated fat?
unsaturated fat
Unsaturated fat
are oils which the body can benefit from especially monounsaturated fats- olive oil, canola oil- protection of heart and brain
saturated fat
solid fat which in the body in excess can cause obesity- butter/ lard
phospholipid
1 glycerol+2 fatty acids + phosphate group
Phosphate makes it hydrophilic
Fatty acid part remains hydrophobic
what is the benefit of phospholipids having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic characteristics?
perfect for the phospholipid bilayer for the cell membrane
Steroids
consists of four carbon rings modified with various functional groups.
what steroid is most important in our bodies?
cholesterol
cholesterol
is important for cell membrane structure and is it used to synthesize sex hormones and vitamins
Eicosanoids
signaling molecules made by the enzymatic or non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid or other polyunsaturated fatty acids.
What are the building blocks of proteins?
Amino Acids
what atoms are found in proteins?
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, an in many cases, sulfur
what are the functions of proteins
structural support, enzymes, energy source, chemical messengers, receptors, antibodies, transporters, hormones, contraction
what is the structure of peptide bond?
complex organic chemicals formed by peptide bonds between amino acids by dehydration synthesis
What are the four structures of protein?
Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
Primary Protein structure
linear chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
50-1000 amino acids there are mort than 200,000,000 in your body
Secondary Protein Structure
Alpha relics (ribbon) or bata plates sheets (folded pieces of paper)
hydrogen bonds form between amino acids other regions of the chain to form coils or pleated sheets
Tertiary protein structure
getting its 3d structure and be assigned its job based on shape
Hydrogen and covalent bonds between amino acids further apart in the chain causes peptide to have a 3d shape or conformation
why is the 3d shape important in proteins?
shape determines function threadlike vs. globulin
shape is also susceptible to denaturation from hear, radiation, ph changes, chemicals
Quaternary protein structure
can be denatured (unfolded due to radiation temp, ph changes, can cause denaturing
multiple polypeptide chains
what is an example of something that can denature proteins?
chemotherapy
what are the building blocks of nucleic acids?
nucleotides
what do nucleotides consist of?
A nitrogenous base attached to a pentose sugar attached to a phosphate
what are the function of nucleic acids?
carry instructions for controlling cellular activities and also carries energy
what atoms are found in nucleic acids?
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and in many cases phosphorus
how are nucleic acids formed
from phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides with dehydration synthesis
what are three different types types of nucleic acids?
DNA, RNA, ATP
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid- consists of nucleotides with deoxyribose sugar subunits
RDA
Ribonucleic acid- consists of nucleotides with ribose sugar subunits
ATP
Adenine Triphosphate
Compare and contrast DNA and RNA
DNA has a double strand -sugar with no oxygen an replicates itself. RNA single strand and has oxygen
How many songs are in the body?
75 trillion
What is the small cell in the human body
Red blood cell -7.5 micrometers
What is the largest sell in the human body?
Human ovum cell – 140 micrometers-barely visible to the eye
What is the longest sell in the human body?
Smooth muscle-20-500 micrometers long- very thin
Phospholipid bylayer
Is very flexible and some white elastic fluid like nature that makes up the cell membrane
Embedded proteins
Mosaic like floating raft in the sea
Receptor proteins
Receive and transmit messages into a cell
Integral protein
Form pours, channels and carries in cell membrane and converts signals
Enzymes
Catalase chemical reactions
Cellular adhesion molecules
Enable sales to stick to each other
Cell surface proteins
Glycocalyx- name tags
What are the cellular junctions?
Tight junctions, Desmosomes, gap junctions
Tight junctions
A specialized connection of two adjacent animal cell membranes such that the space usually line between them is absent like a Ziploc
Desmosomes
Molecular complexes of cell adhesion proteins and linking proteins that attach the cell surface adhesion proteins To intercellular keratin cytoskeletal filaments.-Zipper – distributing tension
Gap junctions
A specialized intracellular connection between a multitude of animal cells. They directly connect the cytoplasm of two cells, which allows various molecules, ions and electrical impulses to directly passed through a regular gate between cells – like windows and doors between rooms
Where are tight junctions found
And that epithelia cells that line the digestive track – keeping digestive enzymes in micro organisms in the intestine from seeping into the bloodstream for example you don’t want protein or sugar in your urine
Where are Desmosomes found
Found in heart muscle and skin
Where are gap junctions found
Found in excitable cells – like the heart and smooth muscles where I am Kim Hass to synchronize their electrical activity and connection
Nucleus
Stores, protects and repairs DNA, DNA replication takes place here
What are centrioles
Help the mitotic spindle in cell division. Also form the basis of Celia and flagella for movement of DNA during mitosis
What is RNA made from
DNA template
Mitochondrion
Cellular respiration – release energy from blood molecules and convert the energy into usable form
Does the mitochondrion contain DNA?
Yes it contains some DNA/RNA code necessary for its own function
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Contains ribosomes – place for protein synthesis
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Synthesizes lipids, absorbs fats, breaks down drugs
Golgi apparatus
Packages and modifies protein molecules for transport and secretion
Vesicle
Contain substances that recently entered the cell
-store and transport newly synthesized molecules
Lysosomes
Contain enzymes capable of digesting worn cellular parts or substances that enter the cell
Peroxisomes
Contain enzymes Peroxidases important in the breakdown of many organic molecules
Plasma membrane
The flexible plasma membrane separates two of the bodies major fluid compartments intracellular fluid with the cells in the extracellular fluid outside the cells
Passive transport
Movement without using energy – high to low concentration
What are the three types of passive transport
Diffusion, osmosis, filtration
What is active transport
The movement of substances ion/large molecules across the membrane from an area of low concentration to high concentration with the help of ATP(energy)
What are the types of active transport
Primary active transport, secondary active transport, vesicles transport
Simple diffusion
Movies over substance from high to low concentration across a membrane – as long as the membrane is permeable to the substance
What’s an example of simple diffusion
Lipid soluble solutions
Facilitated diffusion
Movement Of substance from our area of low concentration to an area of high concentration through a protein channel
Occurs for ions trying to get through the hydrophobic region of the cell membrane – needs a hydrophilic protein channel
What’s an example of facilitated diffusion
Lipid insoluble solutions such as sugar/amino acids
Osmosis
Movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration across a selectively permeable membrane into an area where the solute cannot cross the membrane – area of high osmotic pressure
Where does osmosis take place in the body
In red blood cells
Filtration
Is our forced through membranes usually to separate larger molecules
Where would you see filtration in the human body
Blood pressure usually forces liquid and small solutes through the blood vessel membrane into the kidney nephron separating the fluid from the larger cells and proteins – you shouldn’t have protein and red blood cells in your urine
Hypotonic solutions
Solution that has a lower solute concentration then inside the cell
In the case of a red blood cell the cell would blow up
Hemolysis
Hypotonic red blood cell – blows up
Hypertonic
A solution with higher salt/solute concentrationThen inside the cell.
Water will rush out of the cell to try and balance it out
Causing crenation
Crenation
Shrinking of the red blood cell
Isotonic solution
When the solution is completely equal to the Cell all is balanced
Active transport
The movement of substances ions/large molecules across a membrane from an area of low concentration to high concentration with the help of ATP
Primary active transport
The entry is diverted directly from the breakdown of ATP
What is an example of primary active transport
Calcium and Nitrogen pumps the most studied pump located in the plasma membrane but especially active and excitable cells such as you’re nervous and muscle cells
Na+ and k+ pumps
Secondary active transport
The energy is derived secondarily from the energy that has been stored in the form of ionic concentration
Differences between the two sides of the membrane
What does secondary active transport depend on
The ion gradient that was created by the primary active transport and the energy stored ingredients as used in directly to drive transport of other solutes
Vascular transport
The movement of molecules between locations inside the cell
Endocytosis
Transport into the cell
Phagocytosis
Eating into the cell
Pinocytosis
Drinking water getting into the cell
Receptor mediated endocytosis
Medical transport via receptor mediated endocytosis – entry of large molecules into the cell through binding of a legend to a receptor on the cell possible legends include enzymes, low density lipoprotein’s, iron, insulin, and unfortunately viruses
Exocytosis
Transport out of the cell
What is an example of exocytosis
Proteins from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus
What are the phases of interphase
G1,G2, S phase
G1
Cell increases in size
G2
Organelles duplicate
S phase
DNA is duplicated
What are the phases of the mitotic phase
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
Where is the checkpoint during the cell cycle
Between interphase in the mitotic phase
What are the possible outcomes of the checkpoint between interphase and mitotic phase
- nothing
- continue cell cycle and divide
- die
Necrosis
Cell dies
What are the five mitotic phases
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
Mitosis
Division of the nucleus and somatic cells – non-sexual
Must be very precise said that new cell receives a complete copy of genetic information therefore many steps are needed
Cytokinesis
The division of cytoplasm at the end of mitosis/meiosis bringing about the separation into two daughter cells
Is there any content and cytoplasmic material divided equally by mitosis?
Do you need content as always divide it equally and cytoplasmic material is very similar in both sells
Prophase
Chromosomes condense and become visible
centrioles start to move to the opposite side
nucleus disappears
microtubules from near Centrosomes
Microtubule formation continues creating final fibers between the centrioles and the chromosomes at the kinetic core
Nuclear membrane dissolves
Metaphase
Chromosomes move along the spindle fibers and align himself midway between the centrioles
Anaphase
Kinetic cores attached to the spindle fibers causing the chromosomes to separate.
The spindle fiber shorten and pour the new individual chromosomes towards the centrioles
Telophase
Chromosomes in long gate at each pole of the cell and return to the chromatids state.
Nuclear envelope forms.
Microtubules disassemble
Cleavage Furrow forms
Gene
One of the biological units of hereditary located in the DNA, transmits hereditary information
Gnome
A complete set of chromosomes delivered from one parent or two sets of chromosomes. Example one set from the egg and one from the sperm cell – the diploid genome
Codon
For each triplet or three base sequence of DNA the corresponding three base sequence on mRNA
Triplet- TAC Codon-ATG
Anticodon
83 basic ones which binds to the mRNA codon calling for the amino acid and carried by that particular tRNA
How many genes are in the human genome?
20,000 genes and a set of 23 chromosomes
What is needed for DNA replication?
- A bubble fork
- And RNA primer
- Enzymes
- Telomere
What enzymes are needed for DNA replication?
Helicase, DNA polymerase, Ligase
What are the steps for DNA replication?
uncoiling
separation
assembly
restoration
What happens during the ongoing phase of DNA replication
Enzymes and wind the DNA molecule, forming a replication bubble
What happens during the separation phase of DNA replication?
The two DNA strand separate as the hydrogen bonds between base pairs are broken to the point at which strains and it is known as the replication fork
What happens during the assembly phase of DNA replication?
With the old parental strands acting as templates the enzyme DNA polymerase positions Completely free nucleotides along the template strand, called leading and lagging strand are synthesized into opposite directions. Two new daughter DNA molecules result from one parental DNA molecule cents each new molecule consists of one old and one new nucleotide strand the mechanism is known as semi conservative replication
What happens during the restoration phase of DNA replication
Ligase enzymes splice short segments of the DNA together restoring the double helix nature
When does DNA replication take place
During interphase during the S phase replication begins the DNA must be replicated before the second divine
What does the latter like structure tell us about DNA
The rails represent the sugar and phosphate backbone of two strands.
The rungs represent paired nitrogenous bases
How did the wrongs of the DNA stick together
Face complementation – the pairing that occurs between the chargers bases are hydrogen bonds
What are the types of bases in DNA
Purines- two carbon
Pyrimidines- one carbon
Purines
Adenine
Guanine
Pyrimidines
Thymine
Cytosine
What nucleotides bond together?
Adenine-Thymine
Guanine-cytosine
Is it easy to break hydrogen bonding?
Yes
Genetic Theory
Cessation Of mitosis and Cell Agent program in the genes
Telomeres
May determine the number of times I still can’t divide
Found a germ cells – absent an adult cells
found and cancerous cells
Telomerase
Lengthens telomeres
What is the central dogma
Describe the two-step process, transcription and translation by which the information in genes flows into proteins
DNA-RNA-Protein
How do you use this this modification to central dogma to achieve a protein
Triplet-codon-anticodon- amino acid
What are the two steps in protein synthesis?
Transcription and translation
Transcription
The process of copying DNA information
-triplets into RNA sequence containing codons. This occurs in the nucleus of the cell
What are the three phases of transcription?
Initiation, elongation, termination
Initiation-Transcription
The first phase of transcription – RNA polymerase separate DNA strands
Elongation-Transcription
Second phase of transcription – RNA polymerase as complementary nucleotides
Termination-Transcription
Third step of transcription – termination signal in DNA is recognized by RNA for the polymerase to stop adding nucleotides
Translation
Converting am RNA to protein – must follow the central dogma
What are the three phases of translation?
Initiation, elongation , termination
Initiation of translation
Phase 1 Dash ribosome binds to the mRNA
Elongation of translation
Brabazon recognize his codon and pears a coat on to the mRNA with anti-codon on a tRNA that has amino acid on the other end.
Peptide bond synthesis occurs between amino acid as the ribosome which recruits tRNA and peptide bond to from between the amino acids
This repeat until the end of the mRNA. The moving of Rabe zone during location is Cell translocation
Termination of translation
When I stop codon and the mRNA is recognized by the ribosome transcription ends and protein is released
How is rough endoplasmic reticulum involved in protein synthesis
Makes protein and ribosomes, protein synthesis happens in the rough ER
