Exam 4 Flashcards
1
Q
What are the three different types of muscle tissue?
A
Skeletal, cardiac, smooth muscle
2
Q
What are the Cara sticks of skeletal tissue
A
Long cylindrical, multi nucleated, with striations
– voluntary movement in skeletal muscle
3
Q
What are the Cara sticks of cardiac Tissue
A
Branching uni-nucleate or bi-nucleate cells with striations
– involuntary movement in the heart muscle
4
Q
What is the Cara sticks of smooth tissue
A
Spindle-shaped uni-nucleate Cell with no striations
– involuntary movement of the muscle and hollow organs
5
Q
What are the three types of muscle coverings?
A
Facia
Tendons
Aponeuroses
6
Q
Fascia
A
Fibrous connective tissue that extends into tendons for attachment
- connective tissue located under the facia
- support cells and reinforce the whole muscle
7
Q
What are the three types of facia
A
Epimysium, Perimysium, endomysium
8
Q
Epimysium
A
Dance irregular connective tissue surrounding the entire muscle, may blend with the facia
– outer most covering
9
Q
Perimysium
A
Fibrous connective tissue surrounding fascicles – groups of muscle fibers
10
Q
Endomysium
A
Find Arial or connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber
11
Q
Tendons
A
Fibrous bands that connects muscle to muscle or bone to muscle
12
Q
Aponeuroses
A
A flat sheet of connective tissue found on the back of the skull on the abdomen, to attach other muscles
13
Q
Muscle
A
Consists of fascicles
14
Q
Fascicle
A
Discrete number of muscle fibers wrapped in the Endomysium
15
Q
What will you find if you remove the Fascia, epimysium, and the perimysium?
A
Exposes muscle
16
Q
Sarcolemma
A
Plasma membrane
17
Q
Sarcoplasm
A
Cytoplasm
18
Q
Myofibrils
A
Fibers within the sarcoplasm that are used for contraction
- 80% of the cell volume
- Responsible for the striation pattern in muscle fibers
19
Q
Sarcomere
A
Contraction units within the microfibril
-Like train cars linked
20
Q
ABand
A
Thick and is myosin
21
Q
I band
A
Thin and is actin
22
Q
Muscle contraction inhibitors
A
Troponin and tropomyosin
23
Q
What do you do inhibitors do at the myosin head
A
Tropin and tropomyosin block the binding site for the myosin head
24
Q
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
A
Membrane channels that surround the myofibrils and contain calcium ions
25
Transverse tubules
Continuous with the sarcolemma
-has pours to bring in extra cellular fluid
– used to conduct nerve signals
26
Triad
Forms at the regions of overlap in the sarcomere region of the Myofibrils where the T tubules is sandwiched between two regions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum
– serve in a muscle contraction
27
What stimulates a muscle
Muscle contractions begin with the neuromuscular junction
28
What is the process of a muscle contraction?
1. Stimulus brought to the muscle fiber at the neuromuscular junction.
2. Motor neuron forms a synapse with the muscle fiber.
3. Motor neuron releases acetylcholine into this in synaptic cleft.
4. Muscle fiber binds acetylcholine, muscle membrane becomes more permeable to sodium creating action potential
5. Electrical impulse triggers the release of calcium stored in his Sarco plasmic reticulum
6. Calcium binds to inhibitors (troponin and tropomyosin)To release them selves from actin filament exposing the binding site for the myosin head.
7. Sodium potassium restores that I am balance by pumping out the excess sodium and potassium
8. ATP binds to the myosin head and stops the contractions.
29
What is the sequence of events that occurs when a muscle is stimulated and contracts?
An exposed binding site on actin molecules form activation by Neuromuscular junction-allows the muscle contraction cycle to occur
1– myosin head bands to Acton, forming the cross page with Acton
2 – ADP Is released from myosin and cross bridge pool then filament towards the center of the sarcomere- shortens the muscle
3-ATP binds to myosin breaking the cross bridge
4-ATP is hydrolyzed in myosin head to allow for the proper placement for cross bridge formation upon stimulation.
30
Why is ATP hydrolysis so important?
To prevent permanent contraction which would prevent Rigor Morris
31
What is Rigor Mortis?
-3-4 Hours after death muscles begin to stiffen with maximum rigidity at 12 hours post Mortem
Dying cells take in calcium to form the cross bridge formation no ATP is being generated to break those cross bridges.
32
What is used for energy by the muscles?
ATP, Creatine phosphate, glycogen(Aerobic and anaerobic), Myoglobin
33
ATP
-Only good for a brief contraction -aerobic
34
Creatine phosphate
-Most abundant – 4/5times more abundant
– more than 10 seconds
35
Glycogen- aerobic
-Used an aerobic cellular respiration and mitochondria
| – requires oxygen, muscle stores glycogen, adequate for moderate activity
36
Glycogen anaerobic
Without oxygen – glucose is converted to lactic acid, the lactic acid buildup because of lack of oxygen – running on a treadmill.
Needed during strenuous exercise to maintain muscle contraction.
37
Myoglobin
A pigment that can store oxygen in the muscles to be used for aerobic cellular respiration
38
Muscle fatigue
I condition resulting from my muscle and losing its ability to contract after a prolonged period of exercise
39
What are possible causes of muscle fatigue
IPAD
- Iron and balances across the sarcolemma
- psychologic loss
- accumulation of lactic acid
- decreased blood flow
40
What is a muscle cramp – spasm
Uncontrolled contraction in the muscle usually caused by exercise while dehydrated or low levels of electrolytes like potassium and calcium
41
What is muscle soreness?
Delayed onset muscle soreness is caused by micro tearing in the muscle which results in inflammation
- micro tearing may be the result of excess tension on the muscle
42
What is a motor unit?
Motor neuron and all muscle fibers and supplies
43
What does the size of the motor unit say about its control?
The smaller the number – the finer the control
44
How do motor units in the muscle usually contract
Asynchronously- Helps prevent fatigue
45
Motor units bring the stimulus that signals two different types of contractions what are these types of contractions?
Isotonic contraction and isometric contraction
46
Isotonic contraction
Muscle contraction needed to move a load requires Acting filaments to move in the sarcomere
-Muscle shortens
47
Isometric contraction
Muscle contraction in response to increase tension without moving a load will create cross bridge in sarcomere
Muscle does not shorten
48
Muscle twitch
Symbolist contraction – consist of a period of contraction and a period of relaxation and a single muscle fiber
49
What are the three phases of a muscle twitch
Latent phase, period contraction,Period of relaxation
50
Latent period
Events of excitation- Contraction coupling – no muscle tension – walking in to a surprise party not knowing what you’re walking into you are relaxed
51
Period of contraction
Cross bridge formation, tension increases
52
Period of relaxation
Calcium ions re-enter into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, tensions declined to zero
53
What is the all or none rule
States that when a muscle fiber is brought to a threshold under a given set of conditions it will contract completely within each stimulus and generate equal force
54
Is the other one rule real in the real world
No
55
What are the two requirements for sustained contraction
Summation and recruitment
56
What do you sustain contractions allow for
Allow for normal activity
57
Summation
The frequency of stimulation of an individual muscle fiber within the muscle
58
Recruitment
The strength of stimulation to recruit muscle fibers for contraction for the entire muscle
59
Tetany
A low stimulation frequency, there are periods of relaxation
Only use muscle fibers that you have already activated
60
Treppe
You are active anymore and more muscle fibers
-high stimulation frequency
61
What are the two results of summation
Unfused Tetany and complete tetany
62
Unfused tetany
Partial relaxation between contractions due to a lesser frequency of stimulation – muscles shaking
63
Complete Tetany
Muscle sustained contraction at maximum intentions with increased frequency of stimulation no relaxation – smooth muscle movement of contraction is staying too long muscle world fatigue and Loose ability contact to Contract
64
Muscle tone
Consistent, slightly contracted state of all muscles Dash due to spinal reflexes
Groups of motor units are alternately activated in response to input from stretch receptors and muscles
Keeps muscles firm healthy and ready to respond
65
What are the four main injection muscles
Deltoid, vastus lateralis, gluteus maximus, gluteus minimus
66
Convulsion
Uncontrolled muscle contraction and relaxation throughout the body causing the body to shake
67
Fibrillation
Irregular muscle contraction, localized to either skeletal or cardiac muscle
68
Myalgia
Muscle pain
69
Muscular dystrophy
Deterioration of the skeletal muscle tissue.
Causes are inherited gene mutations, autoimmune conditions.
Most diseases of this type have unknown causes.
70
Myasthenia Gravis
Are you immune disease where the body attacks acetylcholine receptor’s causing muscle weakness and fatigue
71
Myoma
Tumor for Maisch and in the muscle tissue
72
Origin
end of a skeletal muscle fastened to a relatively immovable or fixed part on one side of the joint
73
Insertion
The end that is connected to a movable part on the other side of the joint
74
Do muscles pull or push
Muscles can only pull never push
75
Agonist
A muscle that causes movement – deltoid is an agonist for abduction of the arm
76
Synergist
A muscle that works with another muscle to perform the same movement – superaspinatus a muscle that originates on the scapula helps with the abduction of the arm
77
Prime mover
And agonist that does most of the work in a synergistic relationship – a deltoid has a major road compared to the supraspinatus in abduction of the arm
78
Antagonist
Muscles working to opposite a movement Dash antagonist to abduction of the arm would be the teres major and the latissimus dorsi
79
Basic principles of the lever system
Effort further than the load from fulcrum=lever operates at mechanical advantage
Effort nearer than load to fulcrum=lever operates at mechanical disadvantage
80
What are the three components of a lever system
Lever, effort, load
81
Lever
Richard bar – bone that moves on a fixed point called the fulcrum – joint
82
Effort
Force supplied by muscle contraction applied to lever to move the resistance or load
83
Load
Resistance Dash bone, tissue, any added weight moved by the effort
84
First class lever system
Provide a way for the body to change the direction, speak, and strength of a movement in a joint – all first class levers reverse the direction of movement like a seesaw so that they applying for us in One Direction results and I’ll load moving on the opposite direction
85
Give an example of a first class lever system in the body name the load, effort, fulcrum
Raising your head off your chest
- fulcrum – a submittal joint
- load – facial skeleton
- effort – posterior neck muscles
86
Second class lever
A type of lever in the human body one example is Achilles tendon, pulling access of the heel of the foot.
Effort – exerted by the calf muscles pulling up word on the heel.
Fulcrum- ball of the foot
load – weight of the body
87
Third class lever system
Effort applied between the full gram and the load – tweezers, forceps – most skeletal muscles
88
Give an example of a third class lever
Flexing the form by the biceps brachii muscle
Effort – exerted proximal radius of the forearm
Fulcrum – the elbow joint
Load – is the hand and the distal end of the forearm.
89
How many muscles are there In the human body?
Greater than 600 named in the body
90
What are the seven criteria used for naming the muscles
```
Location
shape
size
direction of muscle fibers
number of origins
location of attachments
muscle action
```
91
Give an example of when you come bind several criteria of muscle to name a muscle
Extender carpi radius longus
92
Rectus
Fibers run straight
93
Transverses
I was running a right angle
94
Oblique
Fibers run at angles to imaginary defined access
95
What are the functions of the nervous system?
The nervous system is designed to gain input from the X ternal and internal environment, integrate this information, and then respond to it.
96
What are the divisions of the nervous system
Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
97
What makes up the central nervous system?
Spinal cord and brain
98
What makes up the peripheral nervous system
The Efferent and Afferent peripheral nervous system
99
Efferent Peripheral nervous system
Uses efferent motor neurons to convey info from the CNS to the muscles and glands
100
Afferent Peripheral nervous system
Uses sensory neurons to convey information from peripheral receptors to the central nervous system
101
How was the efferent PNS divided up
Into the autonomic and somatic nervous systems
102
Autonomic
Controls smooth muscles – involuntary movement
103
Somatic nervous system
Controls skeletal muscles – voluntary movement
104
What does the autonomic nervous system break up into
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
105
Sympathetic
Prepare his body for stressful situations fight, flight, freight response
106
What does the sympathetic nervous system release?
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine
107
Parasympathetic nervous system
Prepares body for stressful situations – rest and digest response
108
What does the parasympathetic nervous system release?
Acetylcholine
109
What neuroglia cells are found in the CNS
- astrocytes
- oligodendrocytes
- microglia
- ependymal Cells
110
What neuroglea cells are found in the PNS
Schwann cells and satellite cells
111
Astrocytes
- Located between neurons and blood vessels
- functions in the blood brain barrier to regulate movement of substances
CNS
112
Oligodendrocyte
Form along my myelinated axon of neurons in the brain and spine
-Function and producing Mylan around several axon tails comparable to the Schwann cells
CNS
113
Microglia
Located near neurons that have the ability to relocate to injured neurons, phagocytize bacterial and cellular debris
CNS
114
Ependymal cells
Line the cavities of the brain And spinal column,
function in regulating the transport of substances from cerebrospinal fluid and the interstitial space in the brain
CNS
115
Schwann cells
Mylin
-similar to oligodendrocytes
Functions
Insulation
Faster response
PNS
116
Satellite cells
Similar to astrocytes – movement of substances in and out of the cell body
PNS
117
Myelin
Mixture of proteins and lipids that protect and insulate the axon tail
Ask as a barrier between the axon and everything else, it also works to send nerve impulses quicker
118
How are neurons categorized?
Shape and function
119
Multi polar
Many processes, one Exxon and the rest are dendrites found in the brain and spine
120
Bipolar
only two processes, one is the axon and one is the dendrite found in sensory organs
121
Unipolar
Single process extending from the body, but then divide the two processes
– found in a group called ganglia
-uses 1/2 of its processes to receive signals and transmit directly to the spine or the brain and the other half are use mostly organs
122
Sensory neurons
The dendrites serve as a sensory receptor detecting changes in internal and external environment and sent directly to the brain or spine to the ad center – mostly unipolar structure, some bipolar
123
Interneuron
Found only in the brain and spine.
-Multipolar
-They form connections with other interneurons and relay messages coming in and going out of the brain and spinal column
124
Motor neurons
Multi polar neurons receives invoice from brain or spinal column and transfers to other body parts
125
What is the effect of Myelination on transmission of nerve impulses
Myelinated axons-Action potential is only at nodes of ranvier
Unmyelinated Axons- Action potential is along the entire continuous conduction
126
Is the speed of transmission faster with Myelinated axons?
Yes
127
What does unmyelinated axons cause?
Multiple sclerosis
128
What does the diameter or the axon dictate
The greater the diameter of the faster the impulse
129
Synapses
One-way transmission of a
-neurotransmitter occurs between neurons and neurons
neurons and muscles
neurons and glands
Chemical used for all neurotransmitters and electrical are very rare
130
Synaptic cleft
Gap surrounding two cells
131
What happened to the synaptic cleft
- Action potential reaches end of the axon tail in a synapse.
- calcium and plugs into the axon town
– vesicles filled with Neurotransmitter fuse with plasma membrane for Exocytosis of Neurotransmitter
– neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft
– neurotransmitter binds to receptor or receiving cell causing ion channels to open with influx of Na
132
Neurotransmitters
Chemical signals released from neurons by exocytosis
133
Excitatory neurotransmitters
Increase depolarization which increases actin impulses and neurotransmission
134
Inhibitory neurotransmitters
Increase hyperpolarization which decreases the actin impulses neurotransmission
135
Acetylcholine
SSpeed up or slow down nerve signals
Excitatory and inhibitory
136
Norepinephrine and epinephrine
Released during the fight fight response causing vasoconstriction of the blood vessels in the kidney
Excitatory and inhibitory
137
Dopamine
Precursor of other substances including epinephrine
Excitatory and inhibitory
138
Serotonin
Mostly found in the digestive system and blood platelets
Regulate anxiety, happiness,And mood
inhibitory
139
Histamine
Produced by basophils and mast cells
increase the probability of the capillaries to the Y but sounds fun proteins, to allow them to engage pathogen be infected tissue
–promotes alertness
Excitatory
140
GABA
Plays in important role in behavior, cognition in the body’s response to stress
Acts like an Excelerator when driving a car
– used with GLUTAMATE and 80% of the neural cells in the CNS
inhibitory
141
Glutamate
Major Mediator of exciting signals and is involved in most aspects of normal brain functions including cognition, memory and learning
Excitatory
142
Enkephalins/ endorphins
Natural painkillers
Released with pin signals reach spinal chord or brain.
inhibitory
143
White matter
Everything that is myelinated no adipose
144
Grey matter
Always unmyelinated-always has adipose
145
Gyri
Many ridges within the brain
146
Sulci
Small grooves that separate the gyri
147
Fissure
Deep grooves that separate the gyri
148
Transverse fissure
separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum
149
Longitudinal fissure
Separates left and right lobes
150
Cerebrum
Two hemispheres separated by the longitudinal fisher
responsible for integration of complex sensory and neural functions along with initiation coordination and voluntary actually in the body
151
Cerebellum
Integrate sensory information concerning the position of the body parts, coordinate skeletal muscle activity, maintains posture
152
Diencephalon
Consist of the thalamus
used for integrating sensory information
– limbic system
153
Lambic system
Reaching considered the seat of emotion and the hypothalamus and Epithalamus
154
Posterior commissure
Bilateral pulpillary-light reflex
155
Pineal gland
Sleep patterns
Used to regulate the endocrine system
156
Brain stem
Responsible for controlling the flow of messages between the brain and the rest of the body
Midbrain pons and medulla oblongata
157
Midbrain
Uppermost portion
Collectively helps regulate I had movement and involve the pain suppression and functions on the reticular system
158
Pins
Regulates breathing rate and functions in reticular system along with hearing, bladder control, and equilibrium
159
Medulla oblongata
Controls breathing rate, regulates heart rate, basal constriction, vasodilation, vomiting, swelling, hiccuping, coughing, sneezing
160
what are the four interconnected ventricles, what connects them?
two lateral ventricles, connected to third ventricle through inter ventricular foramen
Third ventricle is in the middle of the bran and connects to the fourth ventricle by the cerebral aqueduct.
Fourth ventricle is in the brainstem and in continuous with the central canal of the spinal column
161
Frontal lobe
is made up of the prefrontal cortex, broca's area, motor area, central sulcus
162
prefrontal cortex
concentration, problem solving, executive function, processing emotions and social behavior
Long term memory
163
broca's area
located in one hemisphere only- usually left and its involved with motor activity in producing speech
164
motor area
voluntary muscle movement
165
central sulcus
divides frontal lobe from parietal lobe
directly divides the motor area from the sensory areas in the brain
166
Parietal Lobe
primary sensory area- tactile sensations for determining body positions and spatial awareness
167
occipital lobe
vision
168
temporal lobe
hearing
169
Wenicke's area
located in the region that is part of both the parietal and temporal lobes
general interpretive area of sensory information, integrating visual, auditory cues to understand the situation.
170
what is the function of the diencephalon
interbrain- consists of the Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus
171
Thalamus
used for integrating sensory information- limbic system- region considered the seat of emotion
172
hypothalamus
will be stimulated by amygdaloid body if body needs to respond to stimuli
reactive part- 80% of brain activity
173
epithalamus
posterior commissure=bilateral pupillary
used to regulate the endocrine system and the basal ganglia needed for motor control
174
pineal gland=
sleep patterns
175
what are the two types of memory storage
long term and short term
176
short term memory
temporary holding of information- limited to 7-8 pieces of info
177
long term memory
has limitless capacity
178
Brainstem
relays information from the other parts of the brain to the spinal cord and made of 3 regions with their own functions
midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata
179
midbrain
upper most portion of the brain stem
collectively helps regulate eye and head movement
involved with pain suppression
functions in reticular system
180
pons
regulates breathing rate
functions in reticular system along with hearing, bladder control and equilibrium
181
Medulla oblongata
```
controls breathing rate
regulates heart rate
vasoconstriction and vasodilation
vomiting
swallowing
hiccuping
coughing
sneezing
```
182
Crebellum
little brain
separated by transverse fissure
integrates sensory information concerning the position of body parts
coordinates skeletal muscle activity
maintains posture
183
what are the functional systems f the brains
limbic system, reticular
184
limbic system
controls emotion and needed to make memories
includes parts of the diencephalon and some cerebral structures that encircle the brain stem
185
amygdaloid body
sensory filter of input and emotional cues
may assign an emotion to a particular sensation
skunks smell bad without even having smelled them
stimulator of either the hippocampus or the hypothalamus
186
hypothalamus
will be stimulated by amygdaloid body if body needs to responded to
187
hippocampus
will be stimulated by amygdaloid body when memory needs to be created
sends incoming information to prefrontal cortex of cerebrum for cognitive processing
188
reticular formation
helps with filtering sensory information coming from PNS and used for motor output from the CNS
your dog doesn't bother you because you can filter it out but your friend who doesn't have a dog may be driven crazy by its barking
189
what region of the limbic system is responsible for short term memory
hippocampus
190
what region of the limbic system is responsible for long term memory
prefrontal cortex
191
afferent input
neurons that receive information from sensory organs
192
automatic memory
using past experiences also known as implicit memory
193
what are the factors affecting the transfer from STM to LTM
emotional state
rehearsal
association
automatic memory
194
emotional state
best if alert, motivated, surprised, and aroused
195
rehearsal
repetition and practice
196
association
tying new information with old memories
197
automatic memory
subconscious information stored in LTM
198
how do neurons in the brain change during learning?
Shape- dendritic spines change shape
extracellular proteins- deposited at synapse involved in LTM
Number and size- of parasympathetic terminals may increase
Presynaptic neurons release more neurotransmitter, glutamate, important to LTM
199
what protects the brain and spinal cord
bones, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid
200
bones
butter coverings of the brain and spinal cord
201
meninges
have three layers
- Dura Mater
- Arachnoid Mater
- Pia Mater
202
Dura mater
touch mother
outer most layer- made of dense connective tissue
forms folds- creates cavieies called dural sinuses
that drain and cary blood vessels
203
arachnoid mater
spinal mother
web like inner membrane
subarachnoid spaces carries the cerebrospinal fluid
located between the arachnoid and Pia mater
204
pia mater
delicate mother
thin membrane containing nerves and blood vessels that nourish the underlying nervous tissue
205
what are examples of homeostatic imbalances within the brain
hydrocephalus and proteus
206
Hydrocephalus
water on the brain
occurs in a fetus whose cranial sutures have not yet united increasing internal cranial pressure- the fluid has to be drained using a shunt connected to the digestive tract.
207
proteus
genetic disorder causing asymmetrical growth of musculoskeletal tissues which can accumulate fluid on the brain as the facial and cranial bones become disfigured
people are born normally but the disease progresses after birth
208
Spinal Cord
continuation of medulla oblongata of the brain
16-18 in in length and protected by bone, fibrocartilage disc, and spinal meninges (same three layers as CNS)
209
Gray Matter
Hornes
contains neurons for receiving sensory information, integrating the information and then sending the information out
nerve cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons
210
Posterior root and anterior root
extend from the gray matter and fuse to form 31 pairs f spinal nerves
211
Where do nerves with sensory input enter the spine?
at the dorsal root
212
where do nerves with motor output leave the spine?
Ventral Root
213
White matter
convey sensory impulses from the periphery received by the grey matter from the posterior root of the brain (ascending tract
convey motor impulses from the brain- descending tract to the gray matter in the spine and send out f the anterior root to the muscles and glands
214
Ascending tract
sensory input- straight to the brain
215
descending tract
motor I input going from the brain to what body part needs to do something
216
what are three types of neurons in the ascending pathways to the brain?
- interneurons receiving input from the
- somatic sensory neurons
- visceral sensory neurons
- visceral motor (autonomic neurons)
- Somatic motor neurons
