Exam 3 Flashcards
What fiber is predominantly in cartilage
mostly collagen- which retains water for reslience
Is cartilage avascular or vascular
avascular
How is cartilage built ?
Cartilage is built and maintained by chondrocytes that live in small cavities called lacunae within the extracellular matrix.
How is cartilage maintained?
the shape of cartilage is maintained by the perichondrium-
Perichondrium
dense irregular tissue surrounding the cartilage, and also supplies nutrients and water
What are the three types of cartilage
Hyaline , Elastic, and fibrocartilage
What is the appearance of hyaline cartilage
frosted glass when freshly exposed
what is the function of saline cartilage
provides support with flexibility and resilience
what is the most abundant type of skeletal cartilage?
hyaline
what shape of chondrocytes are found in hyaline cartilage
spherical
what type of fiber is found in the matrix of hyaline cartilage
fine collagen fibers
where are the 4 skeletal locations of hyaline cartilage
- articular- covering the ends of bones at movable joints.
- costal- connects the ribs to the sternum
- respiratory- forms the skeleton of the larynx (voice box) and reinforces other respiratory passageways.
- nasal cartilage- supports the external nose
Elastic Cartilage
resembles hyaline but they contain more stretchy elastic fibers and are better able to stand up to repeated bending.
What skeletal locations can you find elastic cartilage
- external ear
* epiglottis- the flab that bend to cover the opening of the larynx each time we swallow.
Fibrocartilage
highly compressible with great tonsil strength
What is fibrocartilage composed of?
roughly parallel rows of chondrocytes alternating wth thick collagen fibers.
Where does fibrocartilage occur
in sites that are subject to both pressure and stretch, such as the bad like cartilages
what are the skeletal locations of fibrocartilage?
- menisci of the knee
- vertebral Discs
- Pubic Symphysis
How does Cartilage grow?
*Unlike bone, cartilage has a flexible matrix which can accommodate mitosis
Cartilage grows in two ways
- Appositional growth
- Interstitial growth
appositional growth
cartilage- forming cells in the surrounding perichondrium secrete new matrix against the external face of the existing cartilage tissue
interstitial growth
the lacunae bound chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from within.
when does cartilage growth end?
typically ends during adolescence when the skeleton stops growing
Calcified Cartilage
during normal bone growth in youth and during old age cartilage can become calcified due to deposits of calcium salts- still does not become bone
How are bones classified
into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton
axial skeleton
long axis of the body- skull, cranial, facial,hyid,vertebral column , sacrum, coccyx, thoracic cage-ribs and sternum
appendicular skeleton
bones of upper and lower limbs- girdles attaching limbs to axial skeleton- pectoral girdle(scapula, clavicle) humerus) humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,metacapals, phalanges, pelvic girdle (two hip bones) femur, fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges
how many bones are in the axial skeleton
80
how many bones are in the appendicular skeleton
126
How are the bones classified based on their shape
long, short, sesamoid, flat,irregular
long bones
long longitudinal axes and wider not eh ends
ulna, radius, humorous, femur
short bones
cube like, equal length and with small, nodular, embedded in a tendon adjacent to a joint
wrist ankle bones, talus
sesamoid bone
round bone
patella
flat bone
plate like structure
ribs, scapula, some bones in the skull
irregular bones
variety of shape
vertebrae, facial bones
what are the seven functions of the skeletal system
(PMSBITH) Protection Movement Support Blood cell formation Incorporate and release of minerals as needed- calcium and phosphorous triglyceride and growth factor storage hormone production- Osteocalcin
what minerals are stored in the skeletal system
calcium and phosphorous
what hormone is produced int he skeletal system
osteocalcin
osteocalcin
important for regulating appositional growth in bones
osteocytes
maintain the bone matrix by acting as a strain/ stress sensor for the purpose of bone-remodeling
maintain
osteoblasts
actively dividing cells that create osteoid unmineralized bone matrix- primarily collagen fibers
Build
osteoclasts
WBC-Macrophage reabsorbs and breaks down extracellular matrix for the purpose of release ca into the blood
break down
osteogenic cells
actively dividing within the inside and outside linings of bone to create osteoblasts when needed.
compact bone
forms the hard-outer shell of all bones
strongest and densest form of bone in the body
contains many tiny passages for blood vessels and nerves and houses the cells that repair and maintain bones.
spongey bone
lighter and less dense than compact bone
Trabeculae
Shape of spongy bone
Osteocytes
Bone cells, surrounded by a solid intercellular matrix of mineral salts and protein fibers.
Makes up osseous tissue which makes up the compact bone
What is the matrix of osseous tissue rich in?
Calcium and phosphorus containing the mineral hydroxyapatite
Hydroxyapatite
Very hard, but brittle on its own
Osteon
microscopic cylinders Which surround tiny central canal’s.
Form during fetal development.
Lacunae
A small cavity that contains osteocytes.
Lamellae
Osteogenic cells begin to produce bone Matrix and form a ring of bone matrix Matrix this ring is known as Lamella around the blood vessels and nerves
Canaliculi
Hair like canals that connect the Lacunae to each other in the central canal
Central Haversian canals
Runs through the core of the osteon
Contains blood vessels and nerve fibers
What is the structural unit of compact bone
Osteon
Perforating Volkmans canals
Canals runs perpendicular and connects to the central haversians
Connect blood vessels and nerves of periosteum, medullary cavity, and centric canal
Epiphysis
End of the long bone which articulates with another bone
Secondary ossification center
Covered with highland cartilage called articular Cartlidge.
Filled with spongy bone
Articular cartilage
Covers the end of long bones
Proximal epiphysis
Closer to the torso
Distal epiphysis
Furthest away from the torso
Diaphysis
Shaft of the long bone
All of the diaphysis is made up of come back down.
The center is hollow chamber call the medullary cavity
Endosteum
Delicate membrane layer covering the medullary cavity surfaces
– location of the osteogenic cells
Periotenum
Outer covering of the long bone – location of iatrogenic cells and markings
Processes
Bony protrusions that provide sites for attachment of Ligaments and tendons
groove processes and openings processes
Are passage ways for blood vessels and nerves
Depression processes of the bone
Might serve as a place for articulation
Red bone marrow
Specialized connective tissue for him at a polices within the epiphysis
Yellow bone marrow
Reticular fibers network filled with lipids in the medullary cavity
Medullary cavity
Hollow chamber in the center of the diaphysis
What bone tissues are found in flat bone
Both spongy and compact
Structure of the short, irregular, and flat bones
- Then plates of spongy bone covered in compact bone.
- Plates sandwich between connective tissue membranes.
- Periosteum an interest in him.
- No shaft or a purposes.
- Red bone marrow throughout spongy bone.
- Highland cartilage covers articular surfaces.
Short bones
Are roughly cube shaped with vertical and horizontal dimensions approximately equal.
- They consist primarily of spongy bone which is covered by a thin layer of compact bone.
- Short bangs include bones of the wrist and in the ankle
Flat bones
Are thin, flattened and usually curved.
Most of the bones of the cranium are flat bones
Irregular bones
Are not in any of the above categories, are classified as a regular bones.
- They are primarily spongy bone that is covered with thin layer of compact bone.
- The vertebrae and some other bones of the skull are irregular bones
Bone development
Bone development begins at six weeks in utero and continues until age 25. After 25 but information is in the room of remodeling
Ossification
Osteogenesis
Process of bone tissue formation is used in different parts of life for different reasons.
Formation of the bony skeleton
Begins in second month of fetal development, intramembranous
Bone growth
Until Early adulthood
-endochondral
Bone remodeling and repair
Lifelong
Endochondral
What are the two types of bone ossification
Intramembranous and endochondral
Intramembranous ossification
Bone development from fibrous membrane. Used to form only flat bones like the clavicles and cranial bones
Endochondral ossification
Bone forms by replacing highland cartilage, forms most of the skeleton
What are the steps in intramembranous ossification
- Mesenchymal cells Turn into osteoblast while migrating to the ossification centers
- Osteoblast turn into osteocytes and they classify themselves in place
- Bone grows into linear expansions called specials and blood vessels will grow and branch around them to support the bone tissue
- Growth at multiple ossification centers cause enlargement and produce spongy bone, Merrill cavities and compact bone.
Where can you collect bone marrow for transplantation?
The flat bones of the pelvic girdle – ileum and also the sternum
What are the steps and endochondral ossification
- Brown color information
- Chondrocytes hypertrophy and creates cavities within the Cartlidge.
- Peritoneum bud and vision – osteoblasts and blood vessels invade the center of Cartilage in the developing bone shaft to deposit osteoblasts and osteoclasts to build spongy bone.
- Diaphysis elongation-The diaphysis in long gate using nutrients brought byParis Danielle bud and medullary cavity forms using osteoclasts in order to suppress development of bone marrow. -Secondary ossification centers form in the epiphysis of the bones
- Epiphyseal ossification
Ossification continues in the purposes and the diaphysis when complete, only two areas of highland cartilage remain at the surface of the purposes and at the epithelial plate – secondary ossification center appears in the epiphysis above the primary ossification center
What is the difference between intersexual and appositional growth
Intersexual is longitudinal gross and appositional growth increases in both thickness.
What is interstitial Growth dependent on?
- Primary ossification center.
- Epithelial plate.
- Secondary ossification center
Why must the epiphyseal plate maintain constant thickness
Rate of Cartlidge growth on one side balanced by bone replacement on the other
Why must bone remodeling occur in the epiphysis
To keep the epiphysis is the correct size otherwise your joints were at work
appositional growth
- Increase in both thickness.
- Occurs throughout your life known as bone remodeling.
- Usually more building up and breaking down.
- Osteoblast/ask your class activity regulated by Osteocalcin
What are the supervisors of bone remodeling
Osteocytes are the supervisors of bone remodeling which go into action when they sent stress and strain or when responding to a mechanical stimuli such as running on a hard surface.
What happens if they ask your side detect a tiny microscopic fracture?
They will initiate the remodeling process to fix it
What is the osteocyte remodeling process?
- The osteocyte releases a chemical signal to the osteoblasts to go to the site.
- They secrete a collagen digestive enzyme and an acidic hydrogen ion mixture that dissolves the calcium phosphate.
- Releasing the calcium in the phosphate back into the blood- reabsorption
- The osteoclasts go through adopoisis so they do not continue breaking a bone down but before dying they activate the osteoblast to begin rebuilding the bone.
- When we exercise we are stimulate bone remodeling and this strengthening our bones.
Considering interstitial bone growth and development what is the role of the epiphyseal plate
To ensure that the rate of Cartlidge growth on one side is balanced by the bone replacement on the other
Considering interstitial bone growth and development what is the most important in organic and organic compounds
Inorganic-70% calcium phosphate
Organic – 30% collagen
What is the role of vitamin D?
Is necessary for proper absorption of calcium in the small intestine – without calcium bones become soft and deformed
What disease it’s caused by a vitamin D deficiency
Rickets-in small children
Osteomalacia-Condition in adults
What is the role of vitamin a?
Vitamin a is necessary for osteoblasts and osteoclasts activity
What is the role of vitamin C?
Vitamin C is required for collagen synthesis
What is the role of vitamin K?
Vitamin K is required for the activation of osteocalcin, a hormone and extracellular but Matrix needed to bind and retain calcium in the matrix
What hormones regulate bone growth/development
Growth hormone, thyroid hormone, testosterone and estrogen
Growth hormone
Most important and stimulating the epiphyseal plate activity in infancy and childhood
Thyroid hormone
Modulates activity of growth hormone, ensure proper proportions
Testosterone and estrogen
Promote adolescent growth spurt’s, and growth by inducing epiphyseal plate
What would happen with access or deficiencies in any of the growth hormones
Abnormal skeletal growth
What is bone homeostasis
Is governed by bone remodeling and bone repair is needed.
How is appositional growth involved in bone homeostasis
appositional growth contributes to bone homeostasis
Is bone recycled and replaced? If so how often
Recycled 5 to 7% of the bone mass each week.
- Spongy bone is replaced every 3 to 4 years
- compact bone is replaced every 10 years
What happens as older bone becomes more brittle
Calcium salts crystallize and they fracture easier
What is bone remodeling?
-Activation of PTH causes bone reabsorption so it must be balanced with the replacement which occurs from mechanical stress.
How do bones respond to mechanical stress
bone is responding to increasing mechanical stressed by laying down new bone matrix.
- In places with high stress, more calcium will be deposited and less taken away while places with a little stressed or better candidates for reabsorption of calcium into circulation.
- The stress you put on your bones determines where remodeling will occur.
What are the results of mechanical stress?
And bones with high stress there will be more calcium deposits and taking away in the opposite side for areas with low stress
What are the four steps and bone repair?
- Hematoma formation – blood escapes from the broken blood vessel’s in forms a hematoma
- Fibrocartilaginous Calais forms-Cartledge is produced to form a fibrocartilaginous callous. —Osteoblast create new bone from this Matrix.
- Bony callus forms
- Bone remodeling occurs over a long period of time
Why do bones of the upper limbs heal faster than those of the lower limbs?
The upper body has little to no wait pressing on it. Therefore the everybody has less stress than a lower body
Comminuted fracture
Reduce to pieces or fragments
Compression fracture
Reduction In the volume between bones
Spiral fracture
Happens around long bones in a lengthwise fashion
Epiphyseal fracture
Aka salter -Harris
Coming in long bones of children
change to occur where Cartlidge cells are dying and calcification above Matrix is occurring.
Epiphysis separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate
Depressed fracture
Create a depression or indent in the skull
Broken bone portion is pressed in word, typical of the skull fracture
Greenstick fracture
Bones bend and break but not a complete break usually in children under 10 because their bones are softer and more flexible
Coles fracture
Break and distal radius as a result of a fall onto an outstretched hand – common break in osteoporosis patients
Potts fracture
Broken ankle usually distal fibula, caused by a combined abduction and external rotation from an E version force – come ankle break
What are the common ways to treat a fracture?
Reduction and immobilization
Reduction
Realignment of broken bones – close reduction or open reduction
Closed reduction
Position manipulates to correct position
Open reduction
Surgical pins or wires suture the ends
Immobilization
Buy a cast or traction for healing – depends on the severity of the broken bone and age of the patient
Spontaneous fracture
Resulting from disease
Nondisplaced fracture
ends remain in the normal position
Displaced fracture
Ends out of normal alignment
Complete fracture
Broken all the way through
incomplete complete fracture
Not broken all the way through
Open/compound fracture
Skin is penetrated
Closed/simple fracture
Skin is not penetrated
Osteoporosis
Bone reabsorption- Pulling calcium out outpaces the deposit of calcium- bones become very porous and brittle.
What does osteoporosis cause
Burns to become weak and bridal – so brittle that a fall or even mild stress such as bending over or coffee and can cause a fracture
-Osteoporosis related fractures most commonly occur in the hip, wrist or the spine.
When does osteoporosis occur
Creation of new bone doesn’t keep up with the removal of old him
When do you reach your peak bone mass
In your early 20s
What does the likelihood of developing osteoporosis depends partly on
How much bone mass you attained in your youth.
What are risk factors associated with osteoporosis
Age, race, lifestyle choices, and medical conditions and treatment
Who is more likely to develop osteoporosis
White and Asian women, especially older women who are past Menopause
What could help prevent bone loss or strengthen already weak bones
Medications, healthy diet and weight bearing exercise
What symptoms are associated with osteoporosis
There are typically no symptoms in the early stages of a loss, once your bones have been weekend by osteoporosis you may have signs and symptoms that include….
-Back pain, caused by a fracture or collapsed vertebrae.
- Loss of height overtime.
- stooped posture.
-A bone fracture that occurs much more easier than expected
What are risk associated with osteoporosis
Your sex-Women are more likely develop osteoporosis than men
Age – the older you get the greater your risk of osteoporosis. Race – you’re at greater risk of osteoporosis if you are a white or Asian dissent.
Family history – having a parent or sibling with osteoporosis put you at greater risk, especially if your mother or father experienced a hip fracture.
Body frame size – men and women who have small body creams tend to have higher risk because they have less bone mass to draw from as age.
Hormone levels Dash is more common in people who have too much or too little of certain hormones in their bodies – sex hormones, thyroid problems, other glands
Dietary factors – osteoporosis is more likely to occur in people who have low calcium intake, eating disorders, gastrointestinal surgery.
Medications – long-term use of oral or injected corticosteroid medications or medications that help prevent seizures, gastric reflux, cancer, transplant rejection.
Medical conditions – cardiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease, kidney or liver disease, cancer, lupus, multiple myeloma, rheumatoid arthritis
Lifestyle choices-sedentary lifestyle,Excessive alcohol consumption, tobacco use.
How can you prevent osteoporosis
Protein-is one of the building blocks of bone and why most people get plenty of protein in their diet some do not.
Body weight – being underweight increases the chance of bone loss and fractures
Calcium Dash men and women between the ages of 18 and 50 need 1000 mg of calcium a day. This daily amount increases to 1200 mg when women turn 50 and men turn 70.
Vitamin D – improves your body’s ability to absorb calcium and improves bone help in other ways.
Exercise – exercise can help build strong bones and slow bone loss
How are joints classified?
By the type of tissue or the degree of movement
tissue classification
Fibrous, cartilaginous joints, synovial joints
Degree of moment classification
Synarthrotic
Amphiarthrotic
Diarthrotic
Synarthrotic
Immovable
Amphiarthrotic
Slightly movable
Diarthrotic
freely movable
Fibrous joints
Made from dense connective tissue – mini collagen fibers in our form between bones in close contact
What are the three types of fibrous joints
Syndesmosis
Sutures
Gomphoses
Syndesmoses
- Joint held together by a ligament, fibers tissue can vary in length but is longer than in sutures.
- Amphiarthrotic- Slightly movable
- Example - where the fibula and tibia meet
Sutures
Joint held together with a very short, interconnecting fibers and bone edges in a lock. Found only in the skull
-synarthrosis- No movement
How do you sutures originate?
From Fontanels
Gomphoses
Pegging in a socket fibrous joint
The ligaments around the route and family attaches it to the bone
Synarthrotic-No movement
Cartilaginous joint
Highland cartilage or fibrocartilage connects the bottom of Cartilaginous joint
What are the two types of Cartilaginous joints
Synchondroses
Symphysis
Synchondrosis
Primary cartilaginous-Exist between ossification centers of developing bones and are absent in the mature skeleton, but if you persist in some adults.
Sternum to the first rib, epiphyseal plate in a long long
-synarthrotic- No movement
Symphyses
Secondary cartilaginous Considered amphiarthrotic meaning that they allow only slight movement and are found in the skeletal midline
Pubic synthesis, intravertebral disc
Synchondrosis
Formed by Bands of hyaline cartilage uniting the bones
What example of Synchondrosis is used during interstitial growth
Epiphyseal plate
What type of movement is carried out by Synchondrosis
No movement
Synovial joints
- bone separated backward field joint cavities.
- All are diarthrotic -freely moving
- Include all them joints, most drawn to the body
- Have six characteristic features
What are the six characteristic features of synovial joints?
- Small, fluid filled potential space
- Articular Cartlidge – highland cartilage prevents crushing of bone ends
- synovial fluid
- Different types of reinforcing ligaments
- Nerves and blood vessels
What are the two layers of articular joint capsule
External fibrous later – dense regular connective tissue
inner synovial membrane – loose connective tissue, makes synovial fluid
Synovial fluid
Discus, slippery filtrate of plasma and hyaluronic acid Dash lubricate and nourishes articular Cartlidge,
-contains phagocytic cells to remove microbes and debris
What are some examples of synovial joints
Shoulder, elbow, hip, knee, finger
Ligaments
Thick five wristbands like ropes and their job is to provide stability by holding bones together
Anterior cruciate ligament
ACL
-Prevents anterior translation of the tibia relative to the femur, attaches from the lateral condyle of the femur to the front of the tibia
Posterior cruciate ligament
PCL
-prevent posterior translation of the tibia relative to the female, attaches to the posterior intercondylar of the tibia and the medial femoral condyle of the femur
Medial meniscus
Fibrocartilage – crescent shaped shock absorbers and provides join stability but shaped more like a C between the medial condyle of the Beamer in the medial tibial condyle
Lateral meniscus
Fibrocartilage – crescent shaped shock absorbers and provide joint stability but more circular and mobile than the medial meniscus dash between the lateral condyle of the femur and the lateral tibial condyle
Medical collateral ligament
MCL
-Works in connect with the ACL to provide the street to the Exxon rotation – basically preventing the leg from overextending N-word also known as the tibial collateral ligament attaches from the medial epicondyles of the femur to the Posteromedial crest of the tibia
Lateral collateral ligament
LCL
Works in connect with the MCL to provide restraint on access rotation also known as the fibular collateral ligament Dash less comment to injure the LCL then the MCL Dash attached to the lateral epicondyle of the femur and runs to the tabular head.
Patellar ligament
Not only helps keep the kneecap in its proper position but it also assist in the bending of the leg at the knee attaches to the patella to the tibial tuberosity
What is the ligament that was recently discovered in the knee
Anterolateral ligament
ALL
Anterolateral ligament
Stabilize the knee, attachment at the lateral epicondyle of the femur and runs to the tip your head – lateral tibial condo
What are the functions of the knee joint
- Stabilize the knee
- prevent hyperextension
- prevent displacement
- absorb vertical force
Where is the weak spot in the knee
Horizontal clothes especially to extend knee
What are the most commonly injured and ligaments in the knee
TCL, ACL, medial meniscus
Bursa
Saks line with synovial fluid, contains and I’ll be on fluid, reduce friction where ligaments muscles skin tendons or bones rub together
Tendon sheath
And long gated versa wrapped completely around tendon subject to friction
What are the different types of synovial joints?
Plane, hinge, pivot, condylar, Seattle, but on socket
Plane joint
Articulating surface or nearly flat or slightly curved
– movement is sliding or twisting
- non-axial
- example would be your wrist or ankle
Hinge joint
Convex surface of one bone articulates with a concave service of another
- movement is flexion and extension
- uniaxial
-example- Humorous/ulna joint and the joints of the phalanges
Pivot joint
Cylindrical surface of one bone articulates with ring of bone and ligament
- Movement – rotation
- Uniaxial
- Example – the joint between proximal end of the radius and ulna
Condylar joint
Oh well shaped kind out of the bone articulates with elliptical cavity of another
-biaxial
Example – joints between metacarpals and phalanges
Saddle joints
Articulating surfaces have both concave and convex regions, surface of one bone fits Complementary service of another.
- Various movements and two planes-biaxial
- Example – joints between carpals and metacarpals of the thumb
Ball and socket joint
Well shaped head of one bone articulates with cup shaped socket of another
-Movement in all planes including rotation – multi axial
Example is a shoulder or hip
What are common joint injuries
Sprains, dislocation, partial dislocation, Buritis, hemarthrosis, arthralgia, arthritis
Sprains
Over stretching or tearing of the cartilage, ligaments, and tendons associated with a joint. Common injury of wrist and ankles
Dislocation
Luxation, a joint injury that forces the bone and joint out of their position common injury of the shoulder
Partial dislocation
Subluxation – when bones partially come out of that position within a joint – common injury in the radius of the vertebrae
Buritis
Information of the bursae caused by overuse of a joint common in the ankle and the elbow – causes of the tennis elbow
hemarthrosis
Heading into a joint – caused by injury, bleeding disorders, tumors or neurological conditions
Arthralgia
Joint pain and is usually associated with injury or arthritis
Arthritis
Inflammation of the joints
What are the four types of arthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, gout, lime arthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis
I don’t immune disease that attacks the synovial membrane in the joints and causes them to swell, turn red and be painful. Fibrosis may occur and fuse the bones in a systematic disease and may cause damage to other types of tissue and organs as well
Osteoarthritis
Degenerative disorder affects older people primarily. Cause is unknown and starts with the wearing down of the articular Cartlidge to cause a bone on bone interaction usually affects one joint and causes pain, stiffness and swelling
Gout
A temporary form of arthritis caused by the accumulation of uric acid, causes a cute attack of pain and redness and the filling of the joint being on fire
Lyme arthritis
Passed by a bacterial infection past from a tick bite. It causes temporary arthritis systems of aches and pains and most joints. Common in dogs that can happen to people who’ve been bitten by ticks
Circumduction
Movement of the ball and socket joint or the eye
Supination
Turning the palm of the hand upward
Pronation
Palm facing downward
Eversion
Tell the soul of your foot away from the body
Inversion
Tell the soul of your foot in towards the body
Protraction
Is movement of a body part in the anterior direction – being drawn forward
The only joints capable of protection are the shoulder joint and the jaw
Retraction
The action of drawing something back or back in
Elevation
Lifting
Depression
Lowering
Flexion
A banding movement around the joint and a limb such as the knee or elbow that decreases the angle between the bones of the lamb and the joint
Extension
A movement that increases the angle between the body parts
Hyperextension
And excessive joint movement in which the angle formed by the bones of a particular joint is open or straight and beyond its normal healthy range of motion
Dorsey flexion
The foot is bright closer to the shin
Plantarflexion
The foot is extended towards the ground
Abduction
Moved away from the midline of the body
Adduction
Brought towards the middle of the body
Rotation
The action of rotating around and axis or center
