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A&P1 > EXAM 2 > Flashcards

EXAM 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Histology

A

The study of tissue

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2
Q

tissue

A

a group of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common related function

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3
Q

Epithelial Tissue

A

found throughout the body- covers the body surface and organs

forms the inner lining of the body cavities and lines hollow organs

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4
Q

can cancer cells dissolve the basement membrane f epithelial tissue?

A

yes

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5
Q

what type of cell junction is found in epithelial tissue?

A

Tight junctions and desmosomes

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6
Q

is epithelial tissue vascular?

A

No it is avascular but innervated- lack of blood vessels- nourished by diffusion but has nerves

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7
Q

Cane the cells of epithelial regenerate themselves?

A

yes cells in this tissue divide

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8
Q

What are the functions of epithelial tissue?

A
  • Protection- skin, digestive tract lining
  • excretion-sweat from sweat glands
  • absorption-nutrient uptake in small intestine, diffusion, filtration
  • secretion-hormones, mucous, enzymes
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9
Q

How do epithelial tissues get their names?

A

First word- indicates the number of cells

second word- indicates the shape of the cells

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10
Q

simple epithelial

A

single layer of cells

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11
Q

stratified epithelial

A

two or more layers of cells- shape of cells can change in different layers

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12
Q

PSUDOSTRATIFIED epithelia

A

single layer of cells that look layered

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13
Q

transitional epithelia

A

transitions between one shape to another

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14
Q

squamous

A

oval/flat

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15
Q

cuboidal

A

square/hexagon like

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16
Q

columnar

A

tall/rectangular

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17
Q

Connective tissue

A

is prevalent in the body, its amount in particular organs varies.

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18
Q

characteristics of connective tissue

A

-most widely distributed type of tissue

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19
Q

Functions of connective tissue

A
  • Movement
  • insulation
  • supports other tissues
  • storage
  • protects vital organs
  • attachment of tissues/organs
  • transports
  • immunity
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20
Q

what type of connective tissue is involved in movement

A

cartilage

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21
Q

what type of connective tissue is involved in insulation

A

Adipose

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22
Q

what type of connective tissue is involved in supporting other tissues?

A

dense irregular and regular connective tissue and cartilage

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23
Q

what type of connective tissue is involved in storage

A

Adipose and bone

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24
Q

what type of connective tissue is involved in protecting vital organs?

A

bone, dense irregular connective tissue

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25
Q

what type of connective tissue is involved in attachment of tissues/organs

A

dense regular connective tissue and areolar connective tissue

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26
Q

what type of connective tissue is involved in transportation

A

blood

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27
Q

what type of connective tissue is involved in immunity

A

areolar, blood

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28
Q

What are the three structural elements of connective tissue?

A

Ground substance, fibers, cells

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29
Q

ground substance in connective tissue

A

unstructured material that fills interstitial space between fibers and cells.

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30
Q

what are the three types of fibers found in connective tissue?

A

collagen- strong fibers
elastin- strong but flexible
reticular- short branched fibers (spongey)

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31
Q

what are the two types of cells found in connective tissues?

A

blasts- and cyte

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32
Q

Blasts

A

used to develop tissue- chondroblasts, osteoblasts, fibroblast

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33
Q

cyte

A

cells used to maintain tissue - chondrocyte, osteocyte

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34
Q

Muscle Tissue

A

Highly cellular, well vascularized tissues that are responsible for most types of body movements

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35
Q

How are muscular tissues characterized?

A

by properties that allow movements- they respond to a stimulus

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36
Q

contractile

A

they can shorten and generate a pulling force

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37
Q

involuntary movement

A

under conscious control- conrraction of your pupil in bright light

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38
Q

What are the three types of muscle tissue? are they voluntary/involuntary

A

skelital- voluntary
cardiac- involuntary
smooth- involuntary

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39
Q

Nervous tissue

A

The main component of the nervous system- the brain, spinal crd, and nerves which regulates and control the body functions through signaling

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40
Q

irritability

A

easily stimulated

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41
Q

conductivity

A

easily transmit signal

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42
Q

Neuron

A

basic unit of structure of nervous tissue

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43
Q

neuroglia

A

when they occur in central nervous system- brain and spinal chord

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44
Q

Schwann cells

A

when they occur in peripheral nervous system- contain myelin

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45
Q

myelin

A

fatty substance which forms many layers around the fibers and functions to insulate and to increase the rate of transmission of impulses along the fibers.

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46
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

the myelin sheath I interrupted at regular intervals by openings called the nodes of ranvier-

impulses traveling along myelinated fibers jump from node to node, resulting in a tremendous increase in velocity of impulse, and also in saving energy by the sodium potassium pump.

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47
Q

what are the four types of tissue?

A
  • Epithelial
  • Connective
  • Bone
  • Nervous
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48
Q

simple squamous epithelium

A

single layer of flattened cells with disc shape central nuclei and space cytoplasm- simplest of epithelium

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49
Q

what is the function of simple squamous epithelium?

A

allows substances to pass by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important

-also secretes lubricating substances in serosae.

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50
Q

where do you find simple squamous epithelium?

A
  • kidney glomeruli
  • air sacs f the lungs
  • lining of the heart
  • blood vessels
  • lymphatic vessels
  • lining of the ventral body cavity
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51
Q

Stratified squamous epithelium

A

thick membrane composed of several cell layers

  • basal cells are cuboidal or columnar and metabolically active
  • surface cells are flattened
  • keratinized and non-keratinized types
  • basil cells- active in mitosis and produce the cells of the more superficial layers.
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52
Q

What is the function of Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

A

forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane

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53
Q

what is the functions of non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium?

A

forms the moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina

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54
Q

what is the functions of stratified squamous epithelium?

A

protection of underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion

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55
Q

simple cuboidal epithelium

A

single layer of cube like cells with large spherical central nuclei

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56
Q

function of simple cuboidal epithelium

A

secretion and absorption

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57
Q

where would you find simple cuboidal epithelium?

A
  • kidney tubes
  • ducts and secretory portions of small glands
  • ovary surface
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58
Q

simple columnar epithelium

A

single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei, some cells bear cilia, layer may contain mucus secreting unicellular glands also know as goblet cells

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59
Q

what is the function of simple columnar epithelium?

A

absorption, secretion of mucus, enzymes and other substances

ciliated types propels mucus or reproductive cells by ciliary action.

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60
Q

where do you find simple columnar epithelium

A

non-ciliated- lines most of the digestive tract from the stomach to the rectum, gallbladder, and excretory ducts of some glands

ciliated- small bronchi, uterine tubes, some regions of the uterus.

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61
Q

stratified cuboidal epithelium

A

typically two cell layers thick, square or cube like shaped cells.

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62
Q

what is the function of stratified cuboidal epithelium

A

excretion and secretion

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63
Q

where do you find stratified cuboidal epithelium

A

rare- found ins some sweat and mammary glands

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64
Q

stratified columnar epithelium

A

layered column like shape

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65
Q

what function does stratified columnar epithelium possess

A

occurs at a transition between two types of epitheloa

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66
Q

where does stratified columnar epithelium occur

A

small amounts in the pharynx, male urethra and lining of some glandular ducts

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67
Q

pseudostratified columnar epithelium

A

single layer of cells differing in heights, some not reaching the free surface. Nuclei seen at different levels, may contain mucus secreting cells and bear cilia

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68
Q

what is the function of pseudostraified columnar epithelium

A

non-ciliated- male’s sperm carrying ducts and ducts of large glands

ciliated- lines the trachea, most of the upper respiratory tract

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69
Q

transitional epithelium

A

resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal.

basal c

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70
Q

what is the functions of transitional epithelium

A

stretched readily, permits stored urine to distend the urinary organ

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71
Q

where can you find transitional epithelium

A

lines the ureters, bladder, art of the urethra

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72
Q

Goblet cells

A

produce mucin a complex glycoprotein that dissolves in water when secreted.

once dissolved, mucin forms mucus a slimy coating that protects and lubricates surfaces.

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73
Q

where do you find goblet cells?

A

sprinkled in the epithelial lining of the intestinal and respiratory tracts amid columnar cells with other functions.

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74
Q

cilia

A

tiny hair like projections that propel substances along their free surface

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75
Q

what are cancers originating in epithelium called?

A

Carcinoma

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76
Q

what percentage of cancers are carcinoma?

A

90%

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77
Q

What are the three characteristics of carcinoma cells

A
  • usually continually divide- and do not die
  • do not specialize so they do not have characteristics of their starting tissue
  • loose their ability for cell adhesion and can penetrate through tissue layers including the basement membrane of epithelial tissues
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78
Q

where do most carcinomas begin

A

on the surfaces that contact the external environments such as skin, lining of the respiratory tract and digestive tract.

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79
Q

what does the fact that carcinoma is found o the surfaces that contact the external environments say about cancer causing agents?

A

cancer causing agents are found in external environments that come into contact with the epithelial tissues that cover or line our body surfaces.

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80
Q

glands

A

one or more cells that produce and secrete a specific product. this product is always a water based fluid and usually contains proteins- product is referred to as a secretion.

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81
Q

glandular epithelium

A

the one gland that is endocrine and exocrine

-is composed of cells, specialized to produce and secrete substances into ducts or into body fluids

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82
Q

exocrine glands

A

glands that secrete their products int ducts that open onto the surfaces

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83
Q

endocrine glands

A

glands that secrete their products into tissues fluid or blood as product is needed by a target organ or ductless

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84
Q

what is the difference between simple and compound exocrine glands?

A

-simple have one duct and compound have branched ducts

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85
Q

what is the difference between tubular and alveolar exocrine glands?

A

tubular are cylindrical and alveolar are sac like dilations

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86
Q

tubuloalveolal

A

both cylindrical and sa like dilations

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87
Q

what are the three types of secretion?

A

Merocrine, Holocrine, and apocrine

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88
Q

What is an example of simple tubular secretory structure

A

intestinal glands

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89
Q

What is an example of simple branched tubular secretory structure

A

stomach glands

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90
Q

What is an example of simple branched alveolar secretory structure

A

sebaceous oil glands

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91
Q

What is an example of compound tubular secretory structure

A

duodenal glands of small intestine

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92
Q

What is an example of compound alveolar secretory structures

A

mammary glands

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93
Q

What is an example of compound tubualveolar secretory structures

A

salivary glands

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94
Q

merocrine glandular secreting cells

A

are not altered by the secretory pathway- most common type of glandular epithelium secretion.

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95
Q

Describe Merocrine Secretion

A
  • secretory granules gather at the apical region of the cell
  • the granule’s limiting membrane fuses with the apical membrane
  • the contents of the granule ae opened and released
    - this type of fusion and release is referred to as expcytosis
    - the secretory granules lease the cell with no loss of other cellular material
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96
Q

what type of cell exhibit merocrine secretion

A

Mucous and serous cells

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97
Q

Apocrine glandular secreting cells

A

slightly damaged as part of the cell is released with the secretion cells are able to repair the lost part.

-rare type of secretion dependent on sex hormones

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98
Q

Describe Apocrine Secrition

A
  • decretory granules within th cytoplasm gather at the apical region of the cell
  • a portion of the cytoplasm of the cell simply pinches off enclosing the granules.
  • within the lumen this small secretory vesicle breaks down and releases the glands products.
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99
Q

when do apocrine glands become functional

A

at puberty

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100
Q

what do apocrine glands respond to?

A

emotional or sensory stimuli not to heat

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101
Q

what are some examples of apocrine glands

A
  • Lactating mammary glands
  • apocrine glands of the skin in the pubic and axillary regions
  • ciliary (Molly’s) glands of the eyelid
  • the verminous glands of the external aquatic meatus
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102
Q

Holocrine glandular secreting cells

A

are destroyed, but new cells are replaces after secretion

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103
Q

describe what happens in holocrine secretion

A
  • disintegrated cells of the gland itself
  • granules fill the cell until the entire cell becomes bloated with secretory products
  • instead of being released or pinched off the whole cell is discharged into the lumen
  • Once inside the lumen the cell degenerates and the secretory products are released.
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104
Q

what are some examples of holocrine secretion

A

primarily occurs in sebaceous glands within the skin but also the tarsal glands of the eyelid.

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105
Q

What is the composition of connective tissue?

A

Ground elements, fibers, cells

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106
Q

what type of ground substance is found in connective tissue

A

unstructured material that fills interstitial space between fibers and cells

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107
Q

what type of fibers are found in connective tissue

A

collagen- strong
elastin- strong but flexable
reticular-short branched fibers- spongey

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108
Q

what type of cells are found in connective tissue

A

blasts- used to develop tissue
chondroblasts, osteoblasts, fibroblasts
cyte- cells to help maintain tissue
chondrocyte, osteocyte

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109
Q

what are some of the functions of connective tissue where is it found in the body

A
  • movement- cartilage
  • insulation- adipose
  • supports other tissues- dense irregular/regular CT
  • protects vital organs- bones dense irregular CT
  • storage-adipose/bone
  • attachment of tissues/ organs- dense regular, adipose
  • transports- blood
  • immunity- areolar, blood
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110
Q

what are the different types of connective tissue

A

areolar loose connective tissue, adipose loose connective tissue, reticular loose connective tissue, dense regular connective tissue, dense regular CT, Dense Elastic CT, hyaline cartilage , elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage, bone, blood

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111
Q

areolar Connective tissue

A

universal packing material

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112
Q

what cells and fibers does areolar CT contain

A

fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and some white blood cells
collagen, elastin, reticular

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113
Q

what is the function of Areolar CT

A
  • wraps and cushions organs
  • phagocytize bacteria
  • important role in inflammation
  • holds and conveys tissue fluid
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114
Q

where do you find areolar CT

A
  • widely distributed under the epithelia of the body
  • forms lamina propria of mucous membranes
  • packages organs
  • surrounds capillaries
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115
Q

adipose CT

A

closely packaged adipocytes, have the nucleus pushed to the side of the fat droplet

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116
Q

Function of adipose CT

A

FUEL FROM RESERVED FOOD, PROTECTS AGAINST HEATT LOSS, SUPPORTS AND PROTECTS ORGANS

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117
Q

where do you find adipose CT

A

under the skin in subcutaneous tissue, around the kidneys, and eyeball, within abdomen and breast

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118
Q

Reticular CT

A

reticular fibers in a lose groundwork substance

reticular cells lie on the network-looks like grapes and grapevines

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119
Q

what are the functions of reticular CT

A

fibers form a soft internal skeleton (stoma) that supports other cell types including white blood cells, mast cells and macrophages

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120
Q

where do you find reticular CT

A

lymphoid organs- lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen

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121
Q

dense regular connective tissue

A

primarily parallel collagen fibers, a few elastic fibers, major cell type is fibroblast

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122
Q

what are the functions of dense regular connective tissue

A 
attaches
muscle to bones
muscles to muscles
bless to bones 
-withstands great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction
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123
Q

Dense irregular connective tissue

A

Primary irregular arranged collagen fibers with some elastic fibers, fibroblast is a major sale type

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124
Q

What are the functions of dense irregular connective tissue

A
  • With stands tension exerted in many directions

- Provide structural strength

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125
Q

Where can you find dense irregular connective tissue

A

Fibrous capsule of organs and joints, dermis of the skin, submucosa the digestive track

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126
Q

Dense elastic connective tissue

A

Dense regular connective tissue containing hi portions of elastic fibers

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127
Q

What are the functions of dense elastic connective tissue

A
  • Allows tissue to recoil after stretching
  • Maintains pulsating flow of blood through the arteries
  • Aids and passive recoil of the lungs following inspiration
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128
Q

Where can you find dense elastic connective tissue

A

(Aorta) walls of large arteries, within certain ligaments associated with the vertebral column, within the walls of the bronchial tubes

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129
Q

Hyaline Cartridge

A

Amorphous but for Matrix, collagen fibers form an impeccable network, chondroblasts produce the Matrix and Nguyen mature countryside lie in the lacunae

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130
Q

What are the functions of hyaline cartilage

A

Supports and reinforces

Serves as a cushion, resists compressive stress

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131
Q

Where can you find hyaline Cartlidge

A

Most of the embryonic Skeleton, covers the end of a long bone and joint cavities, forms coastal cartilages of the ribs, nose, trachea, and larynx

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132
Q

Elastic cartilage

A

Similar to hyaline but more elastic fibers in the matrix

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133
Q

What are the functions of elastic cartilage

A

Maintains the shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility

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134
Q

Where can you find elastic cartilage

A

Supports external ear, epiglottis

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135
Q

Fibrocartilage

A

Similar to but less firm then highland cartilage, the collagen fibers predominant

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136
Q

What are the functions of fibrocartilage

A

Tensile strength allows it to absorb compressive shock

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137
Q

Where can you find fibrocartilage?

A

Intravertebral disc, pubic synthesis, disc of the knee joint

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138
Q

Bone

A

Hard calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers, osteocytes lie and the lacunae very well vascularized

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139
Q

What are the functions of bone

A
  • supports and protects
  • Provides levers-for muscles to act on
  • Stores calcium, fat and other minerals
  • marrow inside bones is the site for blood cell formation
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140
Q

Blood

A

Red and white blood cells in the fluid matrix called plasma

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141
Q

What is the function of blood

A

Transports respiratory gases, nutrients, waste and other substances

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142
Q

Where can you find blood

A

Contained within the blood vessels

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143
Q

Blasts

A

Used to develop tissues – chondroblast osteoblast, fibroblast

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144
Q

Cyte

A

Cells to maintain tissues chondrocyte, osteocyte

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145
Q

How is connective tissue classified?

A

Into proper and non-proper connective tissues

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146
Q

What is proper connective tissue

A
  1. Loose connective tissue
    - areolar
    - adipose
    - Reticular
  2. Dense connective tissue
    - regular
    - irregular
    - elastic
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147
Q

What is non-proper connective tissues

A
  1. Cartledge
    - hyaline
    - elastic cartilage
    - fibrocartilage
  2. bone
    - compact
    - spongey
  3. blood
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148
Q

What are the three different types of Cartlidge

A

Hyaline,Elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage

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149
Q

How do Cartlidge is heal? Why?

A

They heal slowly because the lack of blood flow to them

150
Q

What are the three different types of muscles?

A

Skeletal, cardiac, smooth

151
Q

What types of muscles are voluntary

A

Skeletal muscles

152
Q

What types of muscles are involuntary

A

Cardiac and smooth muscle

153
Q

Where are skeletal muscle tissue found

A

Found in the skeletal muscle

154
Q

Where are cardiac muscle tissues found

A

In the walls of the heart

155
Q

Where is smooth muscle tissue found

A

Mainly in the walls of hollow organs other than the heart

156
Q

Muscle tissue

A

Characterized by properties that allow movement, muscle tissues are excitable, they respond to a stimulus, they are contractile meaning they shorten and generate a pulling force one attached between two movable object

157
Q

What type of muscle tissue has intercalated discs

A

Cardiac muscle

158
Q

What are the cells that make up the nervous tissue

A

Neurons and neuroglia

159
Q

Nervous tissue

A

Main component of the nervous system – brain, spinal cord, nerves

160
Q

What is the function of the nervous tissue

A

Specialize nerve cells that generate and Conduct nerve impulses

161
Q

Irritability

A

Easily stimulated

162
Q

Conductivity

A

Easily transmit signals

163
Q

Neurons

A

Specialize nerve cell that generates and conducts nerve impulses

164
Q

Nuroglia

A

Supporting cells that support, insulate and protect neurons

165
Q

What are the tissues in a membrane covering?

A

Cutaneous membrane, mucous membrane, Serous membrane, synovial membranes

166
Q

Cutaneous membrane’s

A

The skin serves a number of important functions and it’s associated with a number of structures that are divided from it. The skin forms the integumentary system made up of both epithelial and connective tissues

167
Q

Functions of the skin

A

Protection – the skin protects us in a variety of ways

Thermoregulation
Excretion
Synthesis of vitamin D
Sensation

168
Q

What are the six types of protection the skin provides

A

Mechanical, chemical, protection against disease agents, ultraviolet radiation, thermal damage, desiccation

169
Q

Mechanical protection from the skin

A

The skin physically protects the tissue that it covers

170
Q

Chemical protection from the skin

A

Skin offer some protection against chemical damage

171
Q

Invasion of disease agents

A

The skin presents a barrier against invasion by a variety of pathogens

172
Q

Xeroderma pigmentations

A

Demonstrates the destructive energy of UV radiation

173
Q

Thermal damage

A

The skin provides protection against the extremes of temperature

174
Q

Desiccation

A

The skin provide waterproofing that protects against excessive water loss

175
Q

Thermoregulation in the skin

A

The skin contributes to our ability to maintain a consistent ideal body temperature by mechanisms that retain heat and cold environments and loose he and hot environment

176
Q

Excretion in the skin

A

The skin aids in the secretion of urea and uric acid in sweat

177
Q

Synthesis of vitamin D in the skin

A

Exposure of sunlight enables the skin to participate in the conversion of cholesterol into vitamin D

178
Q

Sensation in the skin

A

The skin contains a variety of sensory receptors that provide information about touch he called and tissue damage

179
Q

Structure of the skin

A
  1. Epidermis – the epithelium on the surface
  2. Dermis – the underlying connective tissue
  3. Subcontinuous tissue-also known as hypodermis – attaches the skin to the underlying organs
180
Q

Mucous membranes

A

I found where outside invaders are able to get in our bodies

181
Q

What is the function of mucous membranes

A

They secrete mucus as protection from potentially harmful invaders such as bacteria, viruses or outside matter that can mess up our systems

The mucus from these layers can trap and remove invaders, some mucus can’t even contain antibodies to help detect the different viruses and bacteria and send her back up from the bodies immune system

182
Q

Where do you find mucous membranes?

A

Find the cavities and tubes are open to the outside of the body, oral and nasal cavities, tubes of the digestive tract, urinary and reproductive systems

183
Q

What type of tissue makes up mucous membranes

A

Consist of epithelium overlaying a layer of Areolar connective tissue

184
Q

Serous membrane

A

Lines body cavities that do not open to the outside and reduce friction between organs and cavity walls
Consist of Single layer of Flattened mesothelial cells applied to the service of a thin layer of collagenous tissue

Composed of both epithelial and connective tissue

185
Q

Mesothelium

A

I was serous membrane forms the lining of a closed serious membrane cavity

186
Q

What is the function of the serous membrane

A

Secretes serous fluid which helps lubricate membrane surfaces

187
Q

What are the serous membranes

A

Peritoneum, Pleura, Pericardium, vaginal tunics

188
Q

Peritoneum

A

Cavity is found within the abdominal and pelvic cavity’s. Connecting peritoneum forms the mesentery and ligament

189
Q

Pleura

A

Tupelo cavities – separated by mediastinum are found within the thoracic cavity

190
Q

Parietal pleura Is divided into what three sections

A
  1. Coastal pleura
  2. Diaphragmatic pleura
  3. Mediastinal pleura
191
Q

Pericardium

A

The pericardial cavity is found within the mediastinum of the thoracic chest

192
Q

Vaginal tunics

A

The cavity of the vaginal process begins at the vaginal ring and extends into the scrotum around the spermatic cord and testes

193
Q

What does connecting the vaginal tonight form

A

Mesorchium

Mesoductus deferens

194
Q

Synovial membranes

A

Find the joints and secrete synovial fluid for lubrication of certain joints – not covered in the book at this point but want to introduce it

195
Q

Inflammatory response

A

Is a relatively nonspecific reaction that develops quickly wherever tissues are injured, while other immune responses are extremely specific but take longer to swing into action

196
Q

What occurs during an inflammatory response

A

Tissue trauma causes injured tissue cells – macrophages, mast cells and other to release inflammatory chemicals.

Blood vessels become more permeable

Allowing WBC, fluid, clotting proteins and other plasma proteins to sweep into the injured area

197
Q

What are the beneficial effects of inflammation

A
  1. Prevents spread of damaging agents to near bag tissues.
  2. Disposes of cell debris and pathogens.
  3. It alerts the adaptive immune system.
  4. It sets the stage for repair.
198
Q

What symptoms are associated with inflammation

A

Heat, redness, pain, swelling

199
Q

What are the three stages of tissue repair

A
  1. Inflammation sets the stage
  2. Organization restores blood supply
  3. Regeneration and fibrosis
200
Q

Tissue repair-What is it and what is the main goal of tissue repair?

A

Wound healing and the process by which the skin, or any injured Oregon, repairs itself after Injury. The main aim of wound healing is to prevent or limit further damage, to clean and seal the wound against infection, to restore tissue strength, and if possible tissue function

201
Q

Step one inflammation set the stage

A
  • Release of inflammatory chemicals
  • dilation of blood vessels
  • which increases vessel permeability
  • Cording occurs, service drive and forms a scab
202
Q

What does dilation of the blood vessels allow during the inflammation stage of tissue repair

A

Local blood vessels become more permeable allowing white blood cells, fluid, clotting proteins, and other plasma proteins to sweep in to the injured area

203
Q

What happens during step two- organization restores blood supply

A
  • The blood clot is replaced with granulation tissue which restores the vascularity supply.
  • Fibroblast produce collagen fibers that bridge the gap
  • Macrophages phagocytize dead and dying cells and other debris
  • Epithelium begins to regenerate – service epithelial cells multiply and migrate over the granulation tissue
204
Q

What happens during step three regeneration of fibrosis

A
  • The scab detaches
  • Fibrous tissue matures, epithelium thickens and it begins to resemble adjacent tissue
  • Results in a fully regenerated epithelium with underlying scar tissue
205
Q

What is regeneration?

A

The ability of the skin to repair itself after injury is vital to human survival, and the process of cutaneous wound healing is complex, requiring a coordinated response by immune cells, hematopoietic cells, and resident cells of the skin. While skin wounds heal, they do not regenerate normal human skin.

206
Q

Are some tissues better at regeneration than others?

A

Yes

207
Q

What tissues regenerate extremely well?

A

Epithelial tissue, bone, areolar connective tissue, dense a regular connective tissue, blood forming tissue

208
Q

What tissues are moderate at regenerating?

A

Smooth muscle and dance regular connective tissue

209
Q

What tissues have virtually no functional regenerative capacity

A

Cardiac muscle, nervous tissue

-Brain and spinal cord – new research shows cell division does occur efforts underway to coax them to regenerate better

210
Q

What is the integumentary organ system made up of

A

Hair, skin, nails

211
Q

What are the functions of the skin?

A

HIPPIE RV

  • House is sensory receptors
  • insulation
  • protective covering
  • epidermal dendritic cells- Phagocytized micro organisms
  • excrete waste
  • regulates water loss
  • vitamin D precursor
212
Q

Why does the skin regulate water loss

A

To regulate body temperature

213
Q

Why is vitamin D precursor important?

A

Because it becomes activated in the liver and the kidneys which is necessary for calcium absorption

214
Q

What are the layers that make up the skin?

A
  • Epidermis
  • dermis
  • sub continuous layer- AKA hypodermis
215
Q

What is Tru skin

A

Has two distinct layers referred to as the continuous membrane one being the epidermis and two being the dermis

216
Q

Epidermis

A

Outer most layer of the skin composed of stratified squamous epithelium

217
Q

Dermis

A

Composed of dense regular connective tissue, smooth muscle, nervous tissue, and blood

218
Q

Sup continuous layer

A

Hypodermis Dash masses of areolar and adipose tissue find the skin to underlying organs

219
Q

Where would you get an interdermal injection

A

Just below the epidermis, this has the longest absorption time as compared to sub continuous injections an intramuscular injections. As a result it is used for sensitivity test like TB, allergy test, and local anesthesia

220
Q

Where would you get a sub continuous injection

A

The drugs need to be injected into fatty tissue just below the skin on either side of your arms, front of your thighs, or abdomen

221
Q

What are the four layers of the epidermis and order from the outside in

A
  1. Stratum corneum
  2. stratum lucidum (only thick skin)
  3. stratum granulosum
  4. Stratum spinosum
222
Q

Stratum corneum

A

Provide a thick layer of dead cells filled with Charitan that provide a waterproof barrier for underlying tissue

-Usually 15 to 30 layers of cells

223
Q

What does the dry dead later in the stratum corneum help prevent

A

Helps prevent the penetration of microbes, the dehydration of underlying tissues, and provides mechanical protection against abrasion for the more delicate, underlying tissues.

224
Q

How did the cells in the stratum corneum shed?

A

Cells in his lower shed periodically and are replaced by cells pushed up from the stratum granulosum. Or stratum lucidum in the case of the palms and soles of your feet.

225
Q

How long does it take to replace the entire layer of the stratum corneum

A

The entire layer is replaced during a period of about four weeks

-Cosmetic procedures such as Microderm ablation help remove some of the dry, upper layer and aim to keep the skin looking refreshed and healthy.

226
Q

What happens in healthy skin, the rate of cells produced in the stratum basal vs. the loss of dead cells

A

the rate of cells produced is closely balanced to the loss of dead cells.

227
Q

Stratum Lucidum

A

Only thick skin

  • soles, palms, digits
  • keratinocytes are dead and flattened
  • cells are densely packed with eleiden
228
Q

Eleiden

A

a clear protein rich in lipids which gives these cells their transparent appearance and provides a barrier to water.

229
Q

Stratum Granulosum

A
  • Second layer (third in thick skin)
  • five layers of flattened dying cells(squamous)
  • generate large amounts of keratin
230
Q

what two types of keratin proteins is the stratum granulosum mostly made up of? What do they do?

A

fibrous and keratohyalin

-accumulate as lamellar granules within the cells, gives this layer its grainy appearance

231
Q

What happens in the stratum granulosum

A

the nuclei and other cell organelles disintegrate as the cells die, leaving behind the keratin, keratohyalin, and cl membranes that will form the stratum lucid/corneum and the accessory structures of hair and nails.

232
Q

Stratum spinosum

A

composed of 8-10 layers of keratinocytes formed as a result o cell division in the stratum basale.

233
Q

Langerhans cell

A
  • interspersed among the keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum
  • functions as a macrophage by engulfing bacteria, foreign particles, and damaged cells that occur in this layer.
234
Q

what is the appearance of the stratum spinosum`

A

spiny- due to the protruding cell processes that join the cells via a structure called a desmosome

-unstained epidermis samples do not exhibit this characterizing appearance

235
Q

What is the function of a desmosome?

A

interlock with each other and strengthen the bond between cells

236
Q

what is the function of the stratum spinosum?

A
  • cells undergo keratinization and accumulate desmosomes.
  • keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum begin the synthesis of keratin and release a water repelling glycolipid that help prevent water loss from the body
  • As new keratinocytes are produced atop the stratum basale the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum are pushed into the stratum granulosum
237
Q

Stratum Basale

A
  • Deepest layer

- single layer of cells mostly basal cells

238
Q

how do the cells in the stratum basale bond to the dermis

A

via intertwining collagen fibers referred to as the basement membrane

239
Q

Dermal papillae

A

finger like projections or folds found in the superficial portion of the dermis

  • increases the strength of the connection between the epidermis and dermis.
  • the greater the folding the stronger the connections made
240
Q

what is the function of the stratum basale?

A

Active mitosis because they receive nutrients from blood vessels nearby

241
Q

Basal cell

A

a cuboidal shaped stem cell that is a precursor of the keratinocyte of the epidermis

242
Q

keratinocyte

A

all of them are produced from the basal cell which are constantly going through mitosis to produce new cells.

-as new cells are formed the existing cells are pushed superficially away from the stratum basale.

243
Q

What are the cells found in the stratum basale

A

basal cell, keratinocytes, Markel cell, melanocyte

244
Q

Merkel cell

A

functions as a receptor and is responsible for stimulating sensory nerves that the brain perceives as touch.

245
Q

melanocyte

A

cells that produce the pigment in Melanin

246
Q

Melanin

A

gives hair and skin its color and helps to protect the living cells of the epidermis from uv radiation damage.

247
Q

what are melanocytes , what do they produce and why?

A

in the stratum basale contain specialized organelles called melanosomes that produce Melin pigment

Functions-

  1. provide skin color
  2. absorbs uv radiation
  3. transferred to other cells by cytocrine secretion.
248
Q

cytocrine secretion

A

the transfer of melanin granules from neighboring epidermal cells

249
Q

How is skin color determined

A

by heredity as well as by environmental and physiological factors.

250
Q

what are the heredity factors in skin color

A
  • determined by he amount of melanin produced which is regulated by several genes and the presence of carotene and hemoglobin
251
Q

Do all people have the same number of melanocytes in stratum basale?

A

yes

252
Q

What do people with mutations in melanin genes have?

A

albinism

253
Q

what environmental factors come into play in skin color?

A

sunlight, uv radiation, x rays

-they darken the existing Melin, stimulate melanocytes to produce more pigment and undergo cytocrine secretion

254
Q

What are physiological factors that come into play with the skin color?

A

erythema, cyanosis, paleness, jaundice

255
Q

Erythema

A

increased blood flow to the skin causes pink color

256
Q

cyanosis

A

lack of blood flow to the skin, causes blue color

257
Q

paleness

A

conditions that constrict blood flout the skin, causes white color

258
Q

jaundice

A

liver malfunction causes the skin to turn yellow

259
Q

In the dermis one finds lines of tension what are these lines made of?

A

Clevage lines made of collagen fibers that run parallel to the skin

externally invisible

260
Q

are cleavage lines beneficial to surgeons

A

yes, lines gap less and heal more readily

261
Q

Dermis

A

strong, flexible connective tissue

  • thickest layer of skin
  • made of fibrous and elastic tissue
262
Q

role of the dermis

A

to support the epidermis and enable the skin to thrive

263
Q

what cell types are found in the dermis?

A

fibroblasts, macrophages, and occasionally mast cells and white blood cells.

264
Q

Alloderm

A

used to replace epithelial tissue in reconstructive surgery

265
Q

what are the contents of the dermis

A

nerve fibers, blood and lymphatic vessels, epidermal hair follicles, oil and sweat glands

266
Q

what are the two layers of the epidermis

A

papillary and Reticular

267
Q

Papillary layer of the epidermis

A

superficial layer of the dermis, projects into the stratum basale of the epidermis to form the finger-like dermal papillae

  • fibroblasts, small number of fat cells, abundance of small blood vessels
  • phagocytes to help fight bacteria and other infections that have breached the skin
268
Q

components of the papillary layer

A

capillaries, elastin fibers, reticular fibers, collagen

269
Q

Dermal Papillae

A

superficial peg like projections- most contain capillary loops some contain messiner’s corpuscles and lamellar

  • some contain free nerve endings (pain receptors)
  • In skin lie atop dermal ridges the cause epidermal ridges.
270
Q

meissner corpuses

A

touch receptors

271
Q

lamellar

A

pacinian pressure receptors

272
Q

friction ridges

A

enhance gripping, contribute to sense of touch, pattern is fingerprints

273
Q

Reticular layer

A

deeper and thicker layer of the dermis
lies above subcutaneous layer of the skin
80% of the dermal thickness

274
Q

what is the reticular layer made of?

A
  • dense fibrous connective tissue
  • elastic fibers- stretch/recoil
  • collagen fibers- strength and bind water
  • cleavage lines
275
Q

What is the reticular layer composed of

A

dense irregular connective tissue, well vascularized, as a rich sensory and sympathetic nerve supply, the reticular layer appears reticulated (net like)

276
Q

what gives the reticular layer a mesh like appearance

A

network of fibers

  • elastin
  • collagen
  • retin-a
277
Q

what are the nerve endings in the dermis able to do?

A

detect touch, temperature, pressure, pain stimuli

278
Q

what are the sweat glands in the dermis responsible for

A
  • production of sweat in response to certain conditions such as heat and stress
  • as sweat evaporates off the skin it can help in cooling the body dwn to maintain homeostasis
279
Q

apocrine sweat glands

A

specific type of sweat gland present in the armpits and genital region

-product a thick oily sweat that treats body odor when bacteria on the skin digest it

280
Q

sebaceous glands

A

responsible for the secretion of sebum

281
Q

sebum

A

an oily substance that helps to keep the skin moist and helps to prevent the entry of foreign substances

282
Q

hair follicle

A

produces the hair around the body

283
Q

what is hair important for

A

regulation of body temps, protection from injury and the enhancement of sensation

284
Q

blood vessels

A

-carry nutrients and discard waste products created by metabolism within the dermis and epidermis in addition to helping to regulate temps of the body

285
Q

Decubitus ulcer

A

Disease affecting the epidermis of the skin

286
Q

What causes a decubitus ulcer

A

prolonged pressure to an area of skin can cut off blood flow from the dermis telling the dividing cells in the stratum basil which will break down the epidermal tissue resulting in the ulcreatiin of the skin- open wound

287
Q

What can cause a decubitus ulcer

A

A person who has been bed ridden

288
Q

Where are you most likely to see a decubitus ulcer

A

Most common in areas of skin overlying bony projections, such as hip, elbow, heel, shoulder

289
Q

How many stages are there in a decubitus ulcer

A

4

290
Q

What are the 4 stages on a decubitus ulcer

A
  1. Reddened , inflamed area on the skin that doesn’t Blanche upon touch. 2. It blistered or open sore with redness surrounding the area.
  2. Crater legs sore that spans the thickness of the skin to the sub continuous layer.
  3. Full thickness wound that exposes underlying bone and muscle.
291
Q

How can decubitus ulcers be prevented

A

By frequently changing the body position of bedridden patients

292
Q

What are the parts of the hair itself?

A
  1. Hair shaft
  2. hair route
  3. hair follicle
  4. hair bulb
  5. hair Papilla
293
Q

Hair shaft

A
  • Found above the surface of the epidermis

- Keratinization complete

294
Q

Hair root

A

Found below the surface of the epidermis

-Where keratinization takes place

295
Q

Hair follicle

A

Has two layers, epidermal and dermal that surround the hair route located at a slight angel

296
Q

Explain what happened and the two different layers of the hair follicle

A

The hair route is created from the epidermal layers of the follicle and is nourished by the dermal layers within the hair papilla

297
Q

Hair bulb

A

The hair in bedded in the skin is the hair follicle and at the bottom of the follicle is the hair papilla

298
Q

Hair papilla

A

Nourishes hair route and houses sensory receptors

299
Q

Root hair plexus

A

For touch

300
Q

Why is hair curly?

A

The shape of the follicle determine the shape of the shaft

301
Q

What shape follicle does curly, wavy, straight hair have

A
  • curly- elliptical shape which can be near linear…The more narrow the shape the curly or the hair.
  • Wavy – oval shape follicle
  • Straight – round shape follicle
302
Q

Why is hair course?

A

The diameter of the follicle determines the coarseness, the wider the diameter the more course the hair is

303
Q

What is the process of hair growth

A
  1. The epidermal cells in the hair bulb or nourished by the dermal blood vessels in the hair papilla.
  2. As the cells in the hairball grow and divide they push older sells toward the service.
  3. These cells become keratinized and die. 4. There remains make up the hair shaft.
304
Q

What is the average hair growth rate

A

2.25 mm per week

305
Q

What is the average hair loss

A

90 Scalp hairs a day

306
Q

What are the two types of hair you have on your body

A
  1. Vellus

2. Terminal hair

307
Q

Vellus

A

Hell, Finehair of children and adult females

308
Q

Terminal hair

A

Course, long hair of eyebrows, scalp

309
Q

What happens with your terminal here at puberty?

A

Appear and ask Larry and pubic region of both sexes and on the face and neck’s of males

310
Q

What is your hair made of

A

Dead keratinized cells with hard keratin – harder than your skin cells

311
Q

What color is your hair? Why?

A

Melanin- Produces light, brown and black hair. Read is produced from another pigment. The absence of melon produces gray and white hair.

312
Q

What are the areas you have hair on your body and why those hairs there

A
  • Body-warns off insects
  • Head-Reduce heat loss and prevent burning on the scalp from the sun
  • eyes-Eyelashes shield the eye
  • nose- Filter large particles
313
Q

What causes goosebumps

A

Arrector pili muscle attached to the hair follicle – used in humans to produce goosebumps and a form Seabrook out of the sebaceous gland to lubricate the skin

314
Q

Hair thinning and baldness

A

Alopecia and true balding

315
Q

Alopecia

A

Hair thinning and both sexes after the age of 40, auto immune disease affects 2.5 million in the US

316
Q

True baldness

A
  • Effects 1.4 billion people in the world.
  • Genetically determined and sex influence condition.
  • Male pattern baldness caused by follicle response to DHT
317
Q

What are treatments to true baldness

A

Minoxidil (rogaine) and finastride(propecia)

318
Q

Sebaceous glands

A

Secrete sebum and located near the hair follicle In most areas of the skin but not on the palms or souls

319
Q

Example of a holocrine gland

A

Secretes contents as a wholesale that disintegrate to release sebum

320
Q

Example of a simple branched alveolar gland

A

Looks like a clove

321
Q

Acne vulgaris

A

A disease that runs from the access of Sebum

322
Q

Sweat gland (sudoriferous gland)

A
  • 2.5 million Sweat glands that can release up to 12 quarts of water
  • Each Glenn originate as a bell shaped coil in the deepest part of the dermis and extends one tube to the surface
323
Q

What are the two types of sweat glands

A

Eccrine and apocrine glands

324
Q

Eccerine gland

A

Squeeze fluid through a pore

325
Q

Merocrine gland

A

Fluid released by exocytosis, abundant in the neck, four head, and back some on the palms and soles.

Produce odorless fluid that is mostly water

326
Q

Apocrine glands

A

Secrete fluid near the hair follicle

Releases fluid at the hair root

327
Q

When does an apocrine gland become active? Where does it’s a creek? And where is it located?

A

At puberty Dash secrete during pain, emotional change, stress and sexual arousal.

Located in the armpits-axillary region in the growing- anogenetal region

328
Q

What does the Apocrine gland produce

A

So that does have an odor because of bacteria

329
Q

Where do nails Grow from

A

The most active side of growth is at the

-lunula region where the cells quickly become keratinized and therefore dead cells and resemble scales that become part of the nail plate as a grown, the nail plate is push forward over the nail bed

330
Q

Nail-pitting

A

Autoimmune disease such as psoriasis and connective tissue disorder

331
Q

Nail clubbing

A

May indicate disease of the liver, heart, lungs

332
Q

Spoon nails

A

anemia, heart disease, thyroid problems

333
Q

Terry’s nails

A

Aging but also diabetes

334
Q

Beau’s lines

A

Horizontal lines in the nails – may indicate a period of serious illness or indicate malnutrition

335
Q

Onycholysis

A

Fungal infection

336
Q

Yellow nail syndrome

A

Chronic bronchitis or lymphedema

337
Q

Pigmented spot

A

Melanoma

338
Q

Red streaks

A

May indicate rheumatoid arthritis, ulcers or hypertension

339
Q

First-degree burn

A

Superficial partial thickness burn – minor sunburn

340
Q

What happens to the skin and a first-degree burnHow long does it take to heal?

A

Skin becomes red and as blood vessels dilate, some swelling

Top layer of skin may peel within 48 hours

healing takes a few days up to two weeks with no scarring

341
Q

Second-degree burns

A

Deep – partial thickness burn, destroy some of the epidermis and dermis

342
Q

What happens during a second-degree burn

A

Fluid escapes from damage capillaries and may form blisters, skin becomes moist and firm and may vary in color from dark red to waxy white

343
Q

How long does it take a second-degree burn to heal

A

Healing may require stem cells and accessory organs made out of epithelial tissue. Longer period of recovery with no scarring and less infection occurs

344
Q

Third-degree burns

A

Full thickness – destroys the epidermis, dermis and accessory structures

345
Q

What happens during a third-degree burn

A

Immersion and hot liquids or a long exposure to a hot object or flames Dash skin becomes dry leathery and may vary from dark red to black or white.

346
Q

What does healing of a third-degree burn require

A

Epidermal cells nearby to extend in over the burn. Grafting may be necessary using an autographed, skin substitutes – scarring is usually evident

347
Q

What is the burn assessment

A

Rule of nine

348
Q

Rule of nine

A
  • Is for the treatment of second and third-degree burns.
  • Subdivide the body in regions of 9% surface areas to estimate the damage associated with Burns.
  • Important for treatment in order to replace lost body fluids and electrolytes for covering the burned area with skin or graphs
349
Q

What is considered to be a crucial burn?

A
  • Greater than 25% of the body has second-degree burns
  • greater than 10% of the body has third-degree burns.
  • Face, hands, or feet bear third-degree burns
350
Q

What is the treatment for Crucial Burns

A
  • Debris removal of burnt skin
  • Antibiotics
  • temporary covering
  • skin graphs
351
Q

What are the two most common types of skin cancer

A

Cutaneous carcinoma and cutaneous melanoma

352
Q

Cutaneous carcinoma

A

Cancer originating from epithelial cells

353
Q

What are the two types of cutaneous carcinoma

A

Basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma

354
Q

What is the most common type of skin cancer?

A

Cutaneous carcinoma

355
Q

Who is at risk for cutaneous carcinoma

A

People over 40, light skin, regularly exposed to sunlight

356
Q

What does cutaneous carcinoma look like?

A

Hard, dry, Skelly growth with a reddish base that appears most often on the neck, face or scalp

357
Q

Cutaneous melanoma

A

Cancer that originates in melanocytes associated with Moles

358
Q

What is the ABC DE role as it applies to Cutaneous melanoma

A

A-Asymmetry
B-Border-irregular
C-color change
D-diameter - Anything bigger than a pencil eraser- 6mm
E- Evolving – if the mole changes significantly in any of the other, or becomes elevated above the skin, itchiness or scaling

359
Q

Who is at risk for cutaneous melanoma

A

People of any age can get melanoma but light skin people are at risk

360
Q

What causes cutaneous melanoma

A
  • Caused by short, intermittent exposure to high intensity sunlight such as a person who gets blistering sunburn.
  • Usually appears on the trunk of the body especially on the back or limbs from an existing mold and spreads horizontally.
361
Q

How frequent do we see cases of melanoma?

A

Accounts for only 4% of skin cancers but 80% of the people die because it metastasizes

362
Q

Boil

A

A skin infection that starts in a hair follicle or oil gland – starts out read and turns into a white pustules with a red ring

363
Q

Vesicles

A

Fluid bumps that look like bubbles on the skin – blister

364
Q

Cyst

A

Information in the dermal area of the skin that never comes to the surface but forms a lump under the skin

365
Q

Wart

A

Neoplasm Caused by a virus living in deepest part of the epidermis

366
Q

Urticaria

A

Hives

367
Q

Peuritus

A

Itchiness of the skin

368
Q

Cyanosis

A

Skin turns blue

369
Q

Alopecia

A

Hair thinning and both sexes after age 40

370
Q

Pustule

A

A small blister or pimple on the skin containing pus

371
Q

Ulcer

A

Skin ulcers can be caused by prolonged periods of poor blood flow to an area of the body. This can occur as a result of infection, immobility, or conditions affecting the blood vessels like diabetes

A&P1 (5 decks)

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