Test 1 Flashcards
Professor Hotzenplotz is planning some experiments, and is deciding which methods to choose. He first wants to measure the activity of individual cells in the cortex, and potentially be able to see the fine structures of those cells such as their dendrites. This will require an animal model and an expensive microscope, which he has access to. His chosen method will be ___________. After this, he wants to see what would happen to the animal’s behaviour if those cells were ‘silenced’ and could no longer fire. To do this, he uses a virus to make those cells express special proteins that are light-sensitive. When yellow light is shone on the cells, they no longer fire. This method is called ___________. Finally, the Professor wants to know if cells are active in the same area of the human brain during a similar task. He decides he needs a method that will allow him to measure brain activity in a specific region of the cortex, and he decides he doesn’t care much about good spatial resolution but wants excellent temporal resolution of cortical activity. He decides to use ________________.
two-photon microscopy, optogenetics, EEG
Recall your reading from Weeks 1 and 2. It’s said that the brain is a “hungry” organ, as it requires so much energy. However, there are mechanisms that may limit the brain’s energy use. For example, when your brain is expending energy, it will produce ________, which is a product formed from the key molecule used in cellular metabolism. This product is actually an inhibitory neurotransmitter, so may “apply the brakes” to neuronal activity and possibly drive mental fatigue.
adenosine
Your reading for Weeks 1 and 2 mentioned that some psychedelics can increase the brain’s ________, whereas sleep has the opposite effect. In physics, this term describes how disordered a system is. In relation to brain function, it describes the complexity (i.e. number and variety) of signals and connections between different areas, and the consequences this may have on information storage.
Entropy
The _____________ dopaminergic pathway from the ________________ to the _________________. This pathway is believed to be involved in generating ‘incentive salience. A separate pathway originates in the same area as the first pathway but projects to the _____________________. This pathway is involved in the generation of planned actions and is called the _______________ pathway.
mesolimbic; VTA; nucleus accumbens; prefrontal cortex; mesocortical
“Field” electrophysiology can be used to record and measure the neuronal activity. A typical hippocampal “field recording” contains multiple events recorded after stimulation of the cortical afferents that project into the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. The first event is the ‘fiber volley’ (aka fibre volley), which is a measure of _____________________. The second event is the field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP), and the slope of this event can be used as a measure of _______________. The final event is the population spike (aka pop-spike) which reflects ______________________.
presynaptic potential, synaptic strength, postsynaptic action potential
Long Term Potentiation (LTP) was first discovered in the hippocampus. his phenomenon is triggered by the neurotransmitter __________ when it activates the _________ receptor, causing Ca2 influx into the postsynaptic cell. This only happens when neurotransmitter is bound to the receptor and the cell is already sufficiently depolarised through the activation of local ________ receptors.
glutamate, NMDA, AMPA
Henry Molaison (patient H.M.) suffered considerable memory deficits after his surgery. However, his performance on the mirror drawing task improved during training, but he had no recollection of training on the mirror drawing task. Thus, his deficits appeared to be specific to _________ memory. This is strange given that his lesions were specific to the _________ hippocampus, and this kind of damage doesn’t always result in memory deficits.
declarative, medial
Schulz et al. (1993) measured the activity of midbrain dopamine neurons in monkeys who were trained to press a specific lever when a sensory cue was presented. Initially, there was a spike in dopamine neuron activity _______ a reward (juice) was presented. However, after sufficient training on the task, there was a spike in the activity of these neurons ________ the reward was presented.
after, before
The hormone _____________ is secreted by cells in the __________. This hormone elicits satiety only when blood glucose is also high.
insulin, pancreas
The hormone _________ is secreted by the ____________. This hormone is considered a “hunger hormone”.
grhelin, stomach
The hormone ____________ is secured from cells called ___________. It is thought that weight loss triggers a reduction in the levels of this hormone, which contributes to an enhanced feeling of hunger. This may help explain “conservation mode” and why many diets fail.
leptin, adipocytes (fat cells)
The hormone _________ is secreted by cells that line the small intestines. This hormone is believed to elicit a state _________, or nausea if released for prolonged periods.
CCK, satiety
In the arcuate nucleus, two populations of cells are thought to drive hunger and satiety, respectively. The first are ____ neurons, who promote hunger by activating the orexigenic cells of the downstream _______________ (and inhibiting the anorexigenic cells of the ___________. The second population of cells in the arcuate nucleus are the ____ neurons, that have the opposite effects on downstream targets.
NPY, lateral hypothalamus, paraventricular nucleus, POMC
Plagemann and colleagues (2010) found that overfeeding early in life promoted methylation tags to be set on the IRP gene, and this correlated with metabolic syndrome phenotypes in later life. Further, Huypens et al. (2016) found that mice fed a high-fat diet produced gametes (sperm and eggs) that produced offspring with metabolic syndrome phenotypes. These are examples of __________.
Epigenetics
White matter plasticity involves the thickening and tightening of the ____________ that wraps around CNS axons. This form of plasticity is activity- dependent; when axons are highly active, the _________, which are glial cells, tighten their grip in order to speed up the ____________.
myelin sheath, oligodendrocytes, action potential
Titos and colleagues (2023) found that a diet high in _________ correlated with less sensory responsiveness during sleep, and thus longer periods of sleep. This was due to the altered activity of neurons that release _________, which is a known arousal signal. In humans, Brandão et al. (2023) found that a diet high in _________ correlated with poorer sleep quality.
saturated fat, dopamine, glucose
Karl Lashley’s famous hunt for the “engram” was a failure. He did not find the seat of memory in the cortex. Rather, he decided all cortical areas are equally capable of storing memory. He termed this the principle of __________. Further, Lashley concluded that the cortex worked as a whole to produce a given outcome such as memory. He termed this the principle of ________.
equipotential, mass action
Recall Lori Zelster’s (2016) study that was mentioned in Week 4’s reading. Zelster used mice with a gene variant that is associated with anorexia nervosa in humans. This gene variant itself did not alter feeding behaviour in the mice. However, Zelster introduced two other variables: ___________ and stress via _________. Zelster found that the mice with the gene variant then stopped feeding.
reducing food/calorie restriction, social isolation
Cannabinoids are believed to promote feeding by acting on the CB1 receptor found on hunger-related neurons in the hypothalamus. It seems possible that a CB1 receptor _________ could therefore be a useful ‘diet drug’. In practice, however, this has proven to be disastrous due to severe side effects such as (name one) __________.
antagonist, depression
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) has been trialled as a means of treating obesity. However, targeting nuclei of the ___________ with DBS has given mixed results so far. Early results suggest that targeting the _________ system may be a better option.
hypothalamus, dopaminergic reward
Recall your reading from Weeks 1 and 2. A leading model of creativity is the ___________ theory. This theory distinguishes two key components of creativity. The first is ___________, which involves using our existing knowledge for inspiration and perhaps making associations between ideas. This phase of creativity is believed to employ the “default mode network” of brain regions. The second phase is _______________, in which ideas are critiqued for their suitability as a means of achieving specific goals. This phase seems to rely on an “executive network”.
dual process, concept formulation, concept evaluation
Recal Tyron et al: (1934) study on learning in rats. What evidence did they find is a role of “nature” (i.e. inheritance) in learning ability? What evidence was later provided by others that challenged Tyron et al.’s conclusions? (5 marks)
- Rats performance in maze/learning ability could be selectively bred, i.e. it is heritable (1)
- This shows that “nature” plays a role in learning ability (1)
- Later evidence showed that this could be unlearned (0.5)
- Environmental enrichment could improve performance of “maze-dull” rats (1)
- This suggests that environment (nurture) also plays a role in learning ability (1)
Recall your reading “Your amazing brain”, by George et al. (2024). Does infection cause dementia? What is the evidence? What are the purported mechanisms? (5 marks)
- Brain has its own microbiome (0.5)
- Evidence suggests that certain infections may increase the risk of dementia (1)
- For example, herpes simplex virus type 1 has been linked to Alzheimer’s disease (1)
- Proposed mechanisms include chronic inflammation and direct damage to brain cells (1)
- However, more research is needed to establish causality (1)
The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. Name the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order, starting at whichever point you prefer. (5 points)
H__________ → F_____ → M_________ b_____ → M_______________ t____ → A_______ t_______ n_____ (ATN) → I_______ C______ → C________ c_____ → C_______ → E_________ c_____ → H__________
Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Hippocampus
Two specific “set-point” theories of eating were presented in lecture. Briefly explain these theories, including how they are purported to work together. (5 marks)
- Lipostatic theory: body aims to maintain set-point levels of body fat (1)
- Glucostatic theory: body aims to maintain set-point glucose levels (1)
- These are both homeostatic theories that are used to explain how our body maintains stable glucose and fat levels (1)
- Eating is a means of restoring the set point and is driven by these mechanisms (1)
- Together, these theories suggest a comprehensive system for maintaining energy balance, with glucose levels providing immediate feedback and fat levels providing long-term regulation of food intake (1)
Briefly describe the three phases of insulin release. How can the phased release of insulin affect when we eat? (5 marks)
- Cephalic phase occurs before food enters the stomach, triggered by sight, smell, or thought of food
- Digestive phase occurs as nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream
- Absorption phase occurs as nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream
The phased release of insulin can affect when we eat by:
- Cephalic phase insulin release prepares body for incoming food, potentially increasing appetite
- Later phases lead to a drop in blood glucose, which may trigger hunger and further eating
From your reading for Week 3, briefly describe evidence from Latner and Stunkard’s work that demonstrates how obese people are stigmatised. (5 marks)
- Children were shown a series of pictures (1)
- They were asked whose they would want to be friends with, pictures of children with no notable features were marked highly, and obese children were ranked lowest (1)
- Obese children in the study showed the same bias (1)
- When the study was repeated years later, the gap between highest ranked and lowest ranked increased (1)
- This showed societal bias is increasing over time (1)
From your reading for Week 4, recall the experiments of Walter Kaye. What did Kaye find with regards to brain function in people with or without anorexia nervosa? What did people with anorexia nervosa report about their state and what conclusions did Kaye reach?
- Kaye investigated the risk reward pathway of people with/without anorexia nervosa (AN) (1)
- In people without AN, brain reward and motivation circuits activated strongly when offered sugar water after fasting. (1)
- In people with AN, these same brain circuits showed much less activation after fasting (1)
- People with anorexia could identify feeling hungry, but their brains didn’t convert that into a desire to eat. (1)
- Those with anorexia experienced heightened anxiety and inhibition, along with diminished reward signalling in their brains when hungry. (1)
- Kaye concluded that people with anorexia may “miscode food as risky rather than rewarding,” explaining their lack of drive to eat even when hungry. (1)
From your reading for Week 4, recall the experiments of Walter Kaye. What did Kaye find with regards to brain function in people with or without anorexia nervosa? What did people with anorexia nervosa report about their state and what conclusions did Kaye reach?
- Kaye investigated the risk reward pathway of people with/without anorexia nervosa (AN) (1)
- In people without AN, brain reward and motivation circuits activated strongly when offered sugar water after fasting. (1)
- In people with AN, these same brain circuits showed much less activation after fasting (1)
- People with anorexia could identify feeling hungry, but their brains didn’t convert that into a desire to eat. (1)
- Those with anorexia experienced heightened anxiety and inhibition, along with diminished reward signalling in their brains when hungry. (1)
- Kaye concluded that people with anorexia may “miscode food as risky rather than rewarding,” explaining their lack of drive to eat even when hungry. (1)
What is neurogenesis? Where does it occur and how it is thought to contribute to one aspect of cognition (use only information presented in PSYC317). (5 points)
- Neurogenesis is the process of generating new neurons from neural stem cells (1)
- It primarily occurs in two regions of the adult brain (1): - The subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles, The subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus
- Neurogenesis in the hippocampus is thought to contribute to learning and memory (1)
- Specifically, it may enhance pattern separation, the ability to distinguish between similar experiences or memories (1)
- This process is believed to be important for forming distinct memories and avoiding confusion between similar events (1)
Briefly explain two contextual or societal factors mentioned in PSYC317 that could reinforce an obesogenic environment. How could an individual promote healthy eating in their own life or the lives of their peer group? Come up with your own strategy, emphasising how the brain’s reward pathways can be harnessed. (5 points)
- Unhealthy foods stimulate our reward pathways/release dopamine (1)
- Environmental/societal factors also do this, i.e. people often eat unhealthy foods wile out socialising/drinking (1)
- Individuals can promote healthy eating in their own lives and peer group by positively reinforcing healthy eating habits (1)
- This can be done by cooking a healthy meal with friends, joining a fitness group, etc (1)
- People are also less likely to crave food that isn’t around/easy to access (avoid instant gratification) so trying to not bring unhealthy food home helps (1)
Professor Hotzenplotz is planning some experiments, and is deciding which methods to choose. He first wants to measure the activity of individual cells in the cortex, and potentially be able to see the fine structures of those cells such as their ________. This will require an animal model and an _______ microscope, which he has access to. His chosen method will be two-photon microscopy. After this, he wants to see what would happen to the animal’s behaviour if those cells were ‘silenced’ and could no longer fire. To do this, he uses a virus to make those cells express special proteins that are ________. When yellow light is shone on the cells, they no longer fire. This method is called optogenetics. Finally, the Professor wants to know if cells are active in the same area of the human brain during a similar task. He decides he needs a method that will allow him to measure brain activity in a specific region of the cortex, and he decides he doesn’t care much about good _______ resolution but wants excellent _______ resolution of cortical activity. He decides to use EEG.
dendrites; expensive; light-sensitive; spatial; temporal
Dr. Smith is investigating Alzheimer’s disease and needs to examine the brain tissue of deceased patients at a cellular level. She wants to look for abnormal protein accumulations and changes in cell structure. For this purpose, she decides to use ___________. After her initial findings, she wants to get an even closer look at the synapses and fine cellular structures. To achieve this higher magnification, she opts for ___________. Finally, to compare her findings with living patients, Dr. Smith wants to non-invasively visualize the overall brain structure and potential atrophy in Alzheimer’s patients. For this, she chooses ___________.
Microscopic Anatomy via Histology; Microscopic Anatomy via Electron Microscopy; Gross Anatomy via Imaging (CT, MRI, DTI)
Neuroscientist Dr. Johnson is studying brain connectivity in healthy adults. He first wants to map the white matter tracts connecting different brain regions. For this, he selects ___________. Next, he aims to measure brain activity across the entire brain while participants perform cognitive tasks, he chooses ___________. Lastly, Dr. Johnson wants to conduct the same experiment in a more natural setting, allowing participants to move around freely, though he knows this will come at the cost of lower resolution. He decides to use ___________.
DTI (Diffusion Tensor Imaging); Functional MRI (fMRI); Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)
Neuroscientist Dr. Johnson is studying brain connectivity in healthy adults. He first wants to map the white matter tracts connecting different brain regions. For this, he selects ___________. Next, he aims to measure brain activity across the entire brain while participants perform cognitive tasks. He chooses ___________ for this purpose. Lastly, Dr. Johnson wants to conduct the same experiment in a more natural setting, allowing participants to move around freely, though he knows this will come at the cost of lower resolution. He decides to use ___________.
DTI (Diffusion Tensor Imaging); Functional MRI (fMRI); Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)
Professor Garcia is conducting a comprehensive study on brain development. She begins by examining fetal brain structure during different stages of pregnancy, requiring a safe, non-invasive method. For this, she uses ___________. After birth, she wants to track the development of specific brain regions over the first few years of life, again using a method safe for children. She continues with ___________. Finally, to understand how these structural changes relate to cognitive development, she needs a method that can measure brain activity during simple tasks in young children. Considering the need for a child-friendly approach, she opts for ___________.
MRI; MRI; Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)
Recall your reading from Weeks 1 and 2. It’s said that the brain is a “______” organ, as it requires so much energy. However, there are mechanisms that may limit the brain’s energy use. For example, when your brain is expending energy, it will produce glucose, which is a product formed from the key molecule used in cellular metabolism. This product is actually an _______ neurotransmitter, so may “apply the brakes” to neuronal activity and possibly drive __________.
hungry; inhibitory; mental fatigue
The brain uses approximately ___% of the body’s energy despite only making up ___% of body weight.
20; 2
The molecule _______ builds up with mental effort, signaling tiredness and acting as a “brake” on brain activity
adenosine
The brain has its own microbiome consisting of approximately _______ species.
100,000
According to the Allen Brain Institute, the mouse brain contains _______ identified cell types, while the human brain draft atlas includes over _______ cell types
5200, 3300
Andrea Volterra’s team discovered a new type of brain cell in 2023 that is a hybrid between _______ and _______, involved in spatial memory.
neurons; glia
Cognitive performance typically peaks around _______ during the day, with individual variations based on _______
noon, chronotype
Problem-solving ability tends to peak in a person’s _______, while emotion perception is highest from the _______ to _______.
20s, 40s, 60s
The _______ network is associated with idea generation in creativity, while the _______ network is involved in idea evaluation
default, executive
Forgetting can be beneficial because it allows for _______ to changing environments and enables _______ by not fixating on specifics
adaptation, generalisation
The human brain is more like an _______ than a galaxy of stars because both show _______, where the whole is more than the sum of its parts
ant colony, emergence
Your reading for Weeks 1 and 2 mentioned that some psychedelics can increase the brain’s ________, whereas sleep has the opposite effect. In physics, this term describes how disordered a system is. In relation to brain function, it describes the complexity (i.e. number and variety) of signals and connections between different areas, and the consequences this may have on information storage
Entropy
Your reading for Weeks 1 and 2 mentioned that some _________ can increase the brain’s entropy, whereas _________ has the opposite effect. In physics, this term describes how ________ a system is. In relation to brain function, it describes the complexity (i.e. number and variety) of signals and connections between different areas, and the consequences this may have on information storage.
psychedelics; sleep; disordered
The mesolimbic ____________ pathway from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens. This pathway is believed to be involved in generating ‘__________’. A separate pathway originates in the same area as the first pathway but projects to the prefrontal cortex. This pathway is involved in the ________________ and is called the mesocortical pathway.
dopaminergic; ‘incentive salience’; generation of planned actions
_____________ can be used to record and measure neuronal activity. A typical hippocampal “field recording” contains multiple events recorded after stimulation of the cortical afferents that project into the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. The first event is the ‘______________’, which is a measure of presynaptic potential. The second event is the _________________, and the slope of this event can be used as a measure of synaptic strength. The final event is the _______________ which reflects postsynaptic action potential.
Field electrophysiology; ‘fibre volley’; field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP); population spike (aka pop-spike)
Long Term Potentiation (LTP) was first discovered in the __________. This phenomenon is triggered by the neurotransmitter glutamate when it activates the
NMDA receptor, causing _____ influx into the ________ cell. This only happens when neurotransmitter is bound to the receptor and the cell is already sufficiently _________ through the activation of local AMPA receptors.
hippocampus; Ca2; postsynaptic; depolarised
Henry Molaison (patient H.M.) suffered considerable memory deficits after his surgery. However, his performance on the _______________ task improved during training, but he had no recollection of training. Thus, his deficits appeared to be specific to declarative memory. This is strange given that his lesions were specific to the medial __________, and this kind of damage doesn’t always result in memory deficits.
mirror drawing; hippocampus
Schulz et al. (1993) measured the activity of ________ dopamine neurons in monkeys who were trained to press a specific lever when a sensory cue was presented. Initially, there was a spike in dopamine neuron activity after a reward (juice) was presented. However, after sufficient training on the task, there was a spike in the activity of these neurons before the reward was presented.
midbrain
Schulz et al. (1993) measured the activity of midbrain __________ neurons in monkeys who were trained to press a specific lever when a sensory cue was presented. Initially, there was a spike in _________ neuron activity after a reward (juice) was presented. However, after sufficient training on the task, there was a spike in the activity of these neurons before the reward was presented.
dopamine; dopamine
The hormone insulin is secreted by cells in the pancreas. This hormone elicits ________ only when blood glucose is also high.
satiety
The hormone insulin is secreted by cells in the pancreas. This hormone elicits satiety only when __________ is also high.
blood glucose
The hormone grhelin is secreted by the stomach. This hormone is considered a ________ hormone.
hunger
The hormone leptin is secured from cells called adipocytes. It is thought that weight loss triggers a ________ in the levels of this hormone, which contributes to an enhanced feeling of _______. This may help explain “__________ mode” and why many diets fail.
reduction; hunger; conservation
The hormone leptin is secured from cells called adipocytes. It is thought that weight loss triggers a ________ in the levels of this hormone, which contributes to an enhanced feeling of _______. This may help explain “__________ mode” and why many diets fail.
reduction; hunger; conservation
The hormone CCK is secreted by cells that line the _____________. This hormone is believed to elicit a state satiety, or _______ if released for prolonged periods.
small intestines; nausea
In the _________, two populations of cells are thought to drive hunger and satiety, respectively. The first are NPY neurons, who promote ________ by activating the orexigenic cells of the downstream lateral hypothalamus (and inhibiting the anorexigenic cells of the paraventricular nucleus). The second population of cells are the POMC neurons, that have the opposite effects on downstream targets.
arcuate nucleus; hunger
In the arcuate nucleus, two populations of cells are thought to drive hunger and satiety, respectively. The first are NPY neurons, who promote hunger by activating the __________ cells of the downstream lateral hypothalamus (and inhibiting the __________ cells of the paraventricular nucleus). The second population of cells in the arcuate nucleus are the POMC neurons, that have the opposite effects on downstream targets.
orexigenic; anorexigenic
In the arcuate nucleus, two populations of cells are thought to drive hunger and satiety, respectively. The first are NPY neurons. The second population of cells in the arcuate nucleus are the POMC neurons, who promote ________ by _________ the orexigenic cells of the downstream lateral hypothalamus (and _______ the anorexigenic cells of the paraventricular nucleus).
satiety; inhibiting; activating
White matter plasticity involves the thickening and tightening of the myelin sheath that wraps around CNS axons. This form of plasticity is activity- dependent; when axons are highly active, the oligodendrocytes, which are ____ cells, tighten their grip in order to speed up the action potential.
CNS; glial
______________ plasticity involves the thickening and tightening of the myelin sheath that wraps around CNS axons. This form of plasticity is activity- dependent; when axons are highly active, the oligodendrocytes, which are glial cells, tighten their grip in order to speed up the action potential.
White matter
Titos and colleagues (2023) found that a diet high in saturated fat correlated with ____ sensory responsiveness during sleep, and thus ______ periods of sleep. This was due to the altered activity of neurons that release dopamine, which is a known ______ signal. In humans, Brandão et al. (2023) found that a diet high in glucose correlated with ______ sleep quality.
less; longer; arousal; poorer
Karl Lashley’s famous hunt for the “______” was a failure. He did not find the seat of memory in the ______. Rather, he decided all _____ areas are equally capable of storing memory. He termed this the principle of equipotential. Further, Lashley concluded that the ______ worked as a whole to produce a given outcome such as memory. He termed this the principle of mass action.
engram; cortex; cortical; cortex
Karl Lashley’s famous hunt for the “engram” was a failure. He did not find the seat of ________ in the cortex. Rather, he decided all cortical areas are equally capable of storing memory. He termed this the principle of equipotential. Further, Lashley concluded that the cortex worked as a whole to produce a given outcome such as _________. He termed this the principle of mass action.
memory; memory
Recall Lori Zelster’s (2016) study that was mentioned in Week 4’s reading. Zelster used mice with a gene variant that is associated with _____________ in humans. This gene variant itself did not alter __________ in the mice. However, Zelster introduced two other variables: _________ and stress via social isolation. Zelster found that the mice with the gene variant then stopped _______.
anorexia nervosa; feeding behaviour; calorie restriction; feeding.
Recall Lori Zelster’s (2016) study that was mentioned in Week 4’s reading. Zelster used mice with a gene variant that is associated with anorexia nervosa in humans. This gene variant itself did not alter feeding behaviour in the mice. However, Zelster introduced two other variables: calorie restriction and stress via social isolation. Zelster found that the mice with the gene variant then stopped feeding.
__________ are believed to promote feeding by acting on the CB1 receptor found on hunger-related neurons in the hypothalamus. It seems possible that a CB1 receptor antagonist could therefore be a useful ‘diet drug’. In practice, however, this has proven to be disastrous due to severe side effects such as depression.
Cannabinoids
