tectonics 2

Question 1

define resillience

Answer 1

Resilience is the ability of a community to cope with a hazard; some communities are better prepared than others so a hazard is less likely to become a disaster. It also includes the ability to return to normal following a disaster.

Question 2

what things will countries have in place if they have a high resilience and high capacity to cope

Answer 2

they have emergency evacuation,
rescue and relief systems in place
they react by helping each other,
to reduce numbers affected, hazard-resistant design or land-use planning have reduced the numbers at risk
For these communities the threshold for disaster will be higher than for ones with low coping capacity.

Question 3

what is the The Disaster Risk and Age Index

Answer 3

The Disaster Risk and Age Index, compiled by the UNISDR highlights the trends of ageing populations and the acceleration of risk in a world that is increasingly exposed to a range of hazard types. It signals how age should be an important factor in understanding vulnerability and the coping capacity of older generations.

Question 4

What does the PAR model suggest

Answer 4

The par model looks at underlying causes of disaster

The PAR model suggests that the socio-economic context of a hazard is important. In poor, badly governed (root causes) places with rapid change and low capacity (dynamic pressures) and low coping capacity (unsafe conditions), disasters are likely.

It show how root causes, dynamic pressures and unsafe conditions combine with a natural hazard to create a disaster.

Question 5

what creates vulnerability in the PAR model

Answer 5

Root causes
Dynamic pressures
Unsafe conditions

Question 6

what are the two opposing forces in the PAR model that interact to create disaster

Answer 6

on one side are the processes that create vulnerability (shown as root causes, dynamic pressures and unsafe conditions)

on the other side is the hazard event itself ( e.g earthquake)

Question 7

what where the root causes on the PAR model for Haiti

Answer 7

-Haiti had debt and needed to repay other countries so spent less on improving infrastructure
-corruption in the government
-80% of the population below the poverty line
-30-40% of gov budget came from foreign aid

Question 8

what where the dynamic pressures on the PAR model for Haiti

Answer 8

-lack of urban planning on how buildings were constructed and where people lived
-lack of effective education systems
-lack of disaster management systems
-rapid urbanization led to vulnerable slum-like housing
-high pop density
significant deforestation and soil degradation leading to earthquake related landslides

Question 9

what where the unsafe conditions on the PAR model for Haiti

Answer 9

-many buildings constructed on soft soil which amplified seismic waves
-illegal housing built in risky areas
-low GDP per capita of US $1300 so buildings constructed cheaply
-poor infrastructure
-b4 earthquake only 39% of people had access to safe water

Question 10

what were the hazards on the PAR model for Haiti

Answer 10

Earthquakes and Landslides

Question 11

when did the Haiti earthquake occur

Answer 11

2010

Question 12

what was the hazard in Japan on the PAR model

Answer 12

magnitude 9 earthquake in 2011

tsunami reached 10 meters high in places

Question 13

what was the root cause for Japan on the PAR model

Answer 13

-oversight in government when building nuclear power plant

Question 14

what was the dynamic pressures for Japan on the PAR model

Answer 14

-nuclear powerplant not made to withstand the impact of the tsunami

Question 15

what was the unsafe conditions for Japan on the PAR model

Answer 15

• The Fukushima nuclear powerplant was vulnerable and unsecure

Question 16

what was the hazard in China on the PAR model

Answer 16

magnitude 7.9 earthquake in 2008

Question 17

what was the root cause for China on the PAR model

Answer 17

-corrupt government officials and law enforcement

Question 18

what was the dynamic pressure for China on the PAR model

Answer 18

-corrupt gov officials ignored building codes
-gov officials accepted bribes to allow builders to take short cuts

Question 19

what was the unsafe conditions for China on the PAR model

Answer 19

-the resulting poorly constructed buildings could not withstand the ground shaking

Question 20

how did recent building practices in the middle east contribute to the disaster in 2003

Answer 20

-there were unbaked clay houses
-rapid urbanization has allowed cheap construction but not safety from earthquakes

Question 21

how did the government in the middle east try to mitigate the impacts of future earthquakes

Answer 21

created a leaflet containing the seismic risk areas and advice on making homes safer such as fixing free standing furniture to walls

Question 22

what does the Moment Magnitude Scale measure

Answer 22

Earthquake magnitude is measured by the Moment Magnitude Scale, an updated version of the Richter scale. It measures the energy released during an earthquake. This is related to the amount of slip (movement) on the fault lane and the area of movement on the fault plane. MMS uses a logarithmic scale

Question 23

• what does the ​The Mercalli scale measure

Answer 23

​The Mercalli scale measures earthquake intensity on a scale of I-XII. This older scale measures what people actually feel during an earthquake, i.e. the intensity of the shaking effects not the energy released. It cannot be used to easily compare earthquakes as shaking experienced depends on building type and quality, ground conditions and other factors.

Question 24

​The relationship between magnitude and death toll is a weak one because:

Answer 24

some earthquakes cause serious secondary impacts, such as landslides and tsunami

earthquakes hitting urban areas have greater impacts than those in rural areas

level of development, and level of preparedness, affect death tolls

isolated, hard to reach places could have a higher death toll because rescue and relief take longer

a very high magnitude could not cause any deaths in an unoccupied area

Question 25

what is the VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index)

Answer 25

This measures that magnitude of a volcanic eruption. It ranges from 0-8 and is a composite index combining eruption height, volume of material (ash, gas, tephra) erupted and duration of eruption. ​ VEI eruptions from 0-3 are associated with shield volcanoes and basaltic eruptions at constructive plate boundaries and mid-plate hotspots. VEI eruptions from 4-7 occur at destructive plate margins, erupting high viscosity, high gas, high silica andestic magma. No modern human has ever experienced a VEI 8 supervolcano. caldera

Question 26

what are hazard profiles

Answer 26

hazard profiles compare the characteristics of earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis (magnitude, speed of onset and areal extent, duration, frequency and spatial predictability). These allow for a better understanding of the nature of hazards and thus the risks associated with each

Question 27

hazards with what characteristics display the greatest risk?

Answer 27

high magnitude, low frequency events - these are the least 'expected' rapid onset events with low spatial predictability -no warning regional areal extent - affecting large numbers of people in a wide range of locations

Question 28

what is the Magnitude: Speed of onset: Areal extent: Duration: Frequency: Spatial predictability: for a Basaltic shield eruption

Answer 28

Basaltic shield eruption Magnitude: small Speed of onset: fairly slow Areal extent: local Duration: fairly long Frequency: quite high Spatial predictability: fairly precise

Question 29

what is the Magnitude: Speed of onset: Areal extent: Duration: Frequency: Spatial predictability: for an Andesitic composite cone eruption

Answer 29

Andesitic composite cone eruption Magnitude: almost middling Speed: middling Areal extent: closer to local than regional Duration: medium Frequency: fairly low Spacial predictability: fairly precise (but less so than basaltic shield)

Question 30

what is the Magnitude: Speed of onset: Areal extent: Duration: Frequency: Spatial predictability: for a Subduction zone earthquake

Answer 30

Subduction zone earthquake​ Magnitude: more than medium Speed: very rapid Size: closer to regional than local Duration: shortest Frequency: closer to low than high Spatial predictability: fairly random

Question 31

what is the Magnitude: Speed of onset: Areal extent: Duration: Frequency: Spatial predictability: for a Tsunami

Answer 31

Tsunami Magnitude: largest Speed of onset: rapid Areal extent: largest Duration: quite short Frequency: high Spatial predictability: highest

Question 32

what are the factors that increase risk

Answer 32

-level of development -density of people -speed of onset -education and preparation Population growth Urbanisation and urban sprawl Environmental degradation Loss of community memory about hazards Very young, or very old population Ageing, inadequate infrastructure Greater reliance on power, water and communication systems

Question 33

what factors mitigate risk

Answer 33

Warning and emergency-response systems Economic wealth Government disaster-assistance programmes Insurance Community initiatives Scientific understanding Hazard engineering

Question 34

for the earthquake in Christchurch and Haiti, compare the number of deaths

Answer 34

Haiti= 300,000 Christchurch= 200 although magnitude was simmilar

Question 35

why is Vanuatu considered to be at most risk

Answer 35

-its in a multihazard zone (composite cone volcanoes, eathquakes, tropical cyclones) -isolated islands (no mobile phone service) spread over a large area -poverty -coping capacity and adaptive capacity is low due to lack of investment in education, healthcare and poor sanitation

Question 36

what do hazard profiles do

Answer 36

hazard profiles compare the characteristics of earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis

Question 37

what factors amplify risk factors

Answer 37

-disease -loss of jobs -slum conditions

Question 38

why is there a rising trend in reported disasters

Answer 38

-scientists believe that improvements in monitoring an recording events may contributing to this rise -improvements in communications technology= disasters are reported -higher population so more people occupy a more hazardous space

Question 39

globally, why is the number of people being killed by disasters falling

Answer 39

-better early warning systems -improved building codes -disaster preparedness however financial cost of disasters is rising

Question 40

why are reports of hazards biased over time

Answer 40

because in our current day world, there is now more reporting of events by the media. The medias focus tends to be on sudden onset events

Question 41

why does the media focus on sudden onset events

Answer 41

-because they are more dramatically noteworthy, perhaps giving the impression that there are actually more tectonic events now than in the past

Question 42

what type of hazards have been increasing and why

Answer 42

hydro-meteorological events have been increasing (such as river flooding and severe weather events) because of the effects of climate change

Question 43

why are numbers of people being affected increasing and why

Answer 43

due to population increase and urbanisation rates. More people are living in areas of risk

Question 44

why do we know more about natural hazards?

Answer 44

In a globalised world, the information about tectonic hazards spreads very quick and information regarding the impact of tectonic hazards spreads very quick and information regarding the impact of tectonic hazards are affecting world regions or the whole world -improvements in communication technology

Question 45

explain how globalisation has led to tectonic disasters having a global impact

Answer 45

-globalisation is the increased spread of people, information, goods and finance due to ever decreasing barriers and has caused tectonic disasters to have an intensified impact on a global scale. -travel via planes has led to people having an increased reliance on these modes of transport and it has provided many jobs for people. The E15 eruption caused flights to be disrupted causing tourists to be trapped and airlines lost $200 million per day. This would have caused net profits to be lost and inconvenience to many tourists. -Globalisation has led to an increased dependence on other countries for goods and trade routes are now established. The E15 eruption also caused $ 2 million to be lost in Kenyan flower exports and people to temporarily loose jobs. This would have placed social strain on people without jobs which depend on globalisation for overseas profits -Information is spread via globalisation and due to the Fukushima disaster via the Tohoku Tsunami, political stances on nuclear energy has been changed and since then, Germany has closed 17 nuclear reactors which has significantly altered their energy mix as it led to them being more reliant on coal. -Tectonic disasters have also made the globe more aware of the risk of hazards via social media which in turn has led to more people being educated which has reduced vulnerability

Question 46

state some facts about Mount Pinatubo

Answer 46

-erupted an ashcloud that was 30km -the SO2 aerosol cloud circumnavigated the world and caused a global decrease in temp for 3 years (global dimming)- affect global hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and rainfall in some areas -nearly every bridge within 30km was destroyed -river systems filled with deep pyroclastic deposits altering biodiversity

Question 47

state some facts about E15 - 2010

Answer 47

-tourists were stranded -airlines lost $ 200 million per day -$2 million per day loss in Kenyan flower exports -disruptions lasted around 3 months

Question 48

state some facts about Tohoku tsunami -2011

Answer 48

-20,000 people died -affected docks, boats around the pacific and killed one person in California -radioactive seawater reached North America which would have affected sea life -impactful globally as it changed stances on nuclear reactors. Germany closed 17 nuclear reactors

Question 49

state some facts about the Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004

Answer 49

-impacted countries from South East Asia to Southern Africa -fatalities from around 50 countries due to tourism -around 250,000 people died

Question 50

what are biological disasters

Answer 50

biological disasters are natural scenarios involving disease, disability or death on a large scale among humans, animals and plants due to microorganisms like bacteria, viruses or toxins e.g. plauge or covid

Question 51

define risk

Answer 51

risk is the probability of harm taking place. This includes deaths injuries, trauma and upsets, damage or loss of livelihoods and disruption to economic activities

Question 52

what are hydrometeorological hazards

Answer 52

hydrometeorological hazards are caused by extreme meteorological (weather) and climate events such as tropical storm, floods and droughts

Question 53

what are geophysical hazards

Answer 53

geophysical hazards originate from internal earth processes. e.g. volcanic activity, earthquakes, mass movement, landslides

Question 54

using a named location , explain how hydrometeorological hazards can contribute to a tectonic disaster

Answer 54

Hydrometeorological hazards are natural hazards caused by weather and climate events. A rise in temperatures caused by climate change means that there is more heat energy in the atmosphere which can increase evaporation. More water in the atmosphere can cause more Lahars ( a violent mudflow) and more widespread ash. This was seen in the Philippines where typhoon rain mixed with ash and pyroclastic deposits forming Lahars. Another meteorological hazard is drought which is a slow-onset threat. This impact can increase the vulnerability of a community and this community may be more focused on tackling the effects of drought, in turn this leads to a region being less prepared in terms of tectonic events

Question 55

what are physical factors that have contributed to Philippines being considered one of the most disaster prone regions?

Answer 55

-it sits across a major convergent plate boundary so faces significant risks from both volcanoes and earthquakes -some of its coasts face the pacific ocean which is the worlds most tsunami prone ocean -it has a tropical monsoon season and heavy rains -has 24 active volcanoes -steep topography so landslides are common

Question 56

why is the population vulnerable in the Philippines

Answer 56

- growing population, rapid urbanisation and poverty -high population density due to this -poor people live in costal areas with poorly constructed infrastructure -25% of population live in poverty

Question 57

why do hydrometeorological hazards sometimes contribute to a tectonic disaster

Answer 57

-ash from the mount Pinatubo volcano mixed with rainfall (meteorological factors) caused lahars which were more damaging than the eruption itself -Higher temps in the atmosphere due to CC leads to more water on the atmosphere which may mean more lahars and perhaps more widespread ash

Question 58

why might some people argue that the Philippines is at more risk than Vanuatu

Answer 58

-Philippines has 24 active volcanoes -Vanuatu has 9 active volcanoes -the Philippines has a greater population density -the Philippines has around 1000 settled islands which compared to Vanuatu which has a fraction of this

Question 59

summarise the parks model

Answer 59

-the parks model plots quality of life against the time before and after a disaster has occurred -all hazard events have different impacts so different curves -it helps demonstrate how good the management/ mitigation of a disaster was. Developing countries are most likely to have a lowered quality of life after a hazard

Question 60

suggest examples where quality of life has returned back to normal

Answer 60

Japan- Tohoku 2011 -although having a quick recovery time and a strong economic base there was energy insecurity due to the shutting down of nuclear power plants

Question 61

suggest examples where quality of life has been lowered

Answer 61

Haiti- 2010 earthquake 300,000 died 5 years after they still havent recovered cost to rebuild infrastructure is immense

Question 62

suggest examples where quality of life has increased

Answer 62

China -216 transport projects under construction or completed -many reconstruction projects= resilient to future hazards Christchurch -buildings re-established with a high level of structural integrity -using steel which will absorb the energy from an earthquake E15 -more resilience -strong economic base

Question 63

summarise the hazard management cycle

Answer 63

its a process in which governments and other organisations work together to protect people form the natural hazards that threaten their communities. Aim: avoid or reduce loos of life of property; provide help to those affected; ensure a rapid and effective recovery

Question 64

why is modifying tectonic events difficult

Answer 64

the forces are very powerful and its not possible to modify earthquakes because the place and time cannot be predicted

Question 65

in what places has modifying the event been successful:

Answer 65

Mount Etna -> lava diversion barriers Mt Pinatubo -> draining crater lakes to reduce risk of Lahars Japan-> stronger sea walls Indonesia-> mangrove forests

Question 66

why is modifying the vulnerability most effective

Answer 66

because prediction is problematic because it can make people feel safer thus leading to a lack of preparation. By modifying vulnerability instead, a community will be more prepared due to better knowledge and understanding on how to react

Question 67

How does land use zoning work

Answer 67

This is where people and property are removed from areas at risk from volcanic eruption such as Mount Merapi or Mount Etna

Question 68

what does land reform do

Answer 68

land reform helps relocate people to less risky areas or a diversification of the economic base so not all jobs are lost in a disaster

Question 69

give examples where tectonic (aseismic) design can be effective

Answer 69

-after the 2010 Haiti earthquake roofs were replaced with sheet metal which is cheaper, lighter and flexible. Small windows reduce weak points in walls making them less likely to collapse in Indonesia tires are used as base isolators lightweight materials are used which can flex more easily

Question 70

modify vulnerability and resilience: what was put in place in Indonesia

Answer 70

- A high speeds tsunami system was put in place in Indonesia enabling accurate warnings to be given

Question 71

modifying vulnerability and resilience: how has the USGS helped with earthquake responses

Answer 71

they established the PAGER system which analyses earthquake events within 30 minutes of their occurrence, providing information to governments, scientists and relief agencies. This technology includes teleseismic data, GPS data, radar measurements of ground deformation, optical and ground satellite imagery and accelogram data

Question 72

what are the key stakeholders in modifying losses

Answer 72

NGOs (non-governmental organisations) such as Red Crescent. There may also be volounteers

Question 73

what are the key stakeholders in modifying loss

Answer 73

-NGOS (non governmental organisations) - there may also be volunteers

Question 74

where has modifying loss been successful

Answer 74

-Kobe had 1.2 million volunteers -Kashmir-> Building better occurred

Question 75

what are the 3 ways of modifying the impacts of a disaster

Answer 75

-Modifying the event -Modify the vulnerability -Modify the loss

Question 76

what is modify the event

Answer 76

1.BEFORE the hazard strikes (long term) 2.Mitigate the impacts of the hazard, by reducing its areal extent and/or effective magnitude 3.This is the most desirable type of management, but isn't always possible. It relies on technology and planning systems which can be high cost, so is less likely to be used in developing and emerging countries.

Question 77

what is modify the vulnerability

Answer 77

1. BEFORE the hazard strikes (short term) 2. Get people out of the way of the hazard, or help them cope with its impacts by building resilience

Question 78

what is modify the loss

Answer 78

1. AFTER the hazard strikes (short and long term) 2. Reduce the short- and long-term losses by acting to aid recovery and reconstruction 3. The least desirable form of management, because it implies that a disaster has occurred and caused damage to people and property.

Question 79

what are the 3 strategies to modify vulnerability

Answer 79

-Hi-Tech Scientific Monitoring (used for Prediction) -Community Preparedness and Education -Adaptation

Question 80

what is High-Tech Scientific Monitoring and what are the advantages and disadvantages

Answer 80

his is used to modify the behaviour of volcanoes and predict eruptions. Advantages: In most cases, predicting an eruption is possible Warnings and evacuation save lives Disadvantages Costly, so not all developing world volcanoes are monitored May suffer from 'cry wolf syndrome' if predictions are not accurate This is where predictions (and evacuation) are wrong, so people are less lively to believe the next one. Does not prevent property damage

Question 81

what is community preparedness and what are the advantages and disadvantages

Answer 81

Examples of this are: preparation days, education in schools and earthquake kits. These are boxes of essential household supplies (water, food, battery powered radio, blankets) kept in a safe place at home to be used in the days following an earthquake. Advantages Low cost, often implemented by NGOs Can save lives through small actions Disadvantages: Does not prevent property damage Harder to implement in isolated rural areas

Question 82

what is adaptation and what are the advantages and disadvantages

Answer 82

Moving out of harm's way and relocating to a safe area. Advantages Would save both lives and property Disadvantages High population densities prevent it Disrupts people's traditional homes and traditions

Question 83

what can modifying loss be described as

Answer 83

Loss modification could be described as 'picking up the pieces' after a disaster has occurred. Losses should be small if event and vulnerability modification have been used, however loss modification is often the main management strategy in developing countries. This was the case after the 2010 Haiti earthquake and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, where management failed to protect people.

Question 84

what are the 3 strategies to modify loss

Answer 84

-short-term emergency aid -long term aid -insurance

Question 85

what is short term emergency aid and what are the advantages and disadvantages

Answer 85

Search and rescue followed by emergency food, water and shelter. Advantages Reduces death toll by saving lives and keeping people alive until longer-term help arrives Disadvantages High cost Difficult to distribute in isolated areas Emergency services are limited and poorly equipped in developing countries

Question 86

what is long term aid and what are the advantages and disadvantages

Answer 86

This may take the form of reconstruction plans to rebuild an area and possibly improve resilience. Advantages Reconstruction can 'build in' resilience through land-use planning and better construction methods Disadvantages Very high costs Needs are quickly forgotten by the media after the initial disaster

Question 87

what is insurance and what are the advantages and disadvantages

Answer 87

This is compensation given to people to replace their losses. Advantages Allows people to recover economically by paying for reconstruction Disadvantages Does not save lives Few people in the developed world have insurance.

Question 88

what are the components of hazard profiles?

Answer 88

- magnitude -speed of onset -areal extent -duration -frequency -spatial predictability