TASK 8 - PUBLIC POLICY + BUREAUCRACY Flashcards
- POLICY. definition
consists of the ‘outputs’ of the pol process, meaning the impact of the gov on society and its ability to make things better/worse
- THE POLICY PROCESS. Name 2 reasons for it being a process
- involves a series of linked actions or events
- germination of ideas
- initiation of proposals
- analysis and evaluation
- making formal decisions
- implementation - distinguishes the ‘how’ of gov from the ‘what’ of gov
- the way policy is made
- contentwise
- THEORIES OF DECISION-MAKING. name the 4
- rational actor model
- incremental model
- bureaucratic organization model
- belief system model
3.1 rational actor model. procedures
-> emphasises human rationality
1. nature of problem identified
2. objective/goal is selected
3. available means of achieving objective are evaluated
- effectiveness
- reliability
- costs
4. decision is made: what is most likely to secure the goal?
3.1 rational actor model: assumptions + characteristics
- humans are able to pursue goals rationally and consistently
- utility is homogeneous
- constructed on econ theories (UTILITARIANISM)
- stresses the self-interest pursuit of material satisfaction
3.1 rational actor model: drawbacks
- more easily applied to individuals, not groups
- decisions made on basis of inadequate and inaccurate info
bounded rationality
not possible to assess all possible courses of action - fail to take into account psychological, emotional, cultural and social factorsq
3.2 incremental model. definition and characteristics
-> incrementalism: portrayed as the main alternative to rational decision-making
- decisions made on the basis of inadequate info and low levels of understanding
- policy-making as continuous process
- normative and descriptive
- allows for flexibility and divergent views
well suited in pluralist democracies
compromise
3.2 incremental model: drawbacks
- critiziced as conservative
- justifies bias against innovation
- more concern for day-to-day problems
no long term view - sheds little light on radical pol decisions
- MIXED SCANNING
-> bridge btw rational and incrementalist approach
decision making in 2 phases:
1. evaluation of all available policy options
2. details of selected policy are reviewed
3.3 bureaucratic organization models
-> highlight degree to which process influences product
two contrasting models:
1. organizational process
2. bureaucratic politics
3.3 bureaucratic org models: organizational process
-> highlights impact on decisions of the values, assumptions and regular patterns of behavior found in any large org
- reflect entrenched culture of gov making them
3.3 bureaucratic org models: bureaucratic politics
-> emphasizes impact on decisions of bargaining btw personnel and agencies pursuing diff interests
- dismissed idea of state as monolith united around single view
- decisions arise from arena of contest in which balance of advantage is const shifting
3.3 bureaucratic org model: drawbacks
- org process allows little scope for pol leadership to be imposed from above
- simplistic idea: pol actors dont hold views only based on own position and their orgs
- fail to give weight to external pressures emanating from broader contexts
3.4 belief system model
-> emphasis on role of beliefs and ideology. is behavior structured by perception
- what ppl see and understand is what their concept allow them to
- entrenched beliefs (unconscious)
3.4 belief system model: approaches to decision-making
-> ‘policy subsystems’: colllection of ppl who contribute to influencing policy in a particular area
- politicians
- civil servants
- interest groups
- researchers
- academics…
EPISTEMIC COMMUNITY
3.4 belief system model: within policy subsystems emerge comprising collections of ppl sharing same beliefs. these operate in 3 levels…
- deep core beliefs
- fundamental moral/philosophical principles
- resistant to change - near-core beliefs
- policy preferences
- more disagreement and flexibility - secondary beliefs
- views abt implementation/application
- more disagreement and flexibility
- STAGES OF THE POLICY PROCESS. Name the 4
- policy initiation
- policy formulation
- policy implementation
- policy evaluation
4.1 policy initiation
- decision to make the decision
- perception that there is a problem to be solved
- structures subsequent debate, and decision-making
- sets pol agenda
- can originate in any part of pol system
above: leaders, cabinets, agencies…
below: public opinion, mass media, pol parties, interest groups…
academics: develop core values + theories
4.2 policy formulation
- process of detailed elaboration to develop systematic policy proposals
- what, when, how
- entails: translation of broad proposals into specific recomms + filtering out proposals
- stages
1. decisions about how to decide
2. issue definition and forecasting: scope for reinterpretation
3. setting objectives/priorities
4. analysis and review of policy options - reducement of actors involved
-> shaped by selective group!
4.2 policy formulation. distinction amongst systems (2)
- whether formulation is based on consultation or imposition
- whether govs engage in long-term planning or day-to-day basis
4.3 policy implementation
- decisions on whether policy outcomes match policy intentions
- conditions for ‘perfect’ implementation:
1. unitary adm system
2. perfect obedience/control
3. perfect info, communication, coordination
4. suff time for adm resources to be mobilized - tendency for bottom-up tradition (more street-understanding)
- tendency for top-down tradition (stresses uniformity and control)
4.3 policy implementation. drawbacks
- dangers of flexibility in application
- executors might also be interested in protecting their career and interests
- absence of consumer pressure from below
- gov often monopoly supplier
4.4 policy evaluation
- can smth be improved?
- decisions made by maintenance, succession or termination
- addresses issues linked to appropriateness/effectiveness
- cost-benefit analysis
- not many govs fund it properly
- ROLE OF BUREAUCRACY. main function
-> main: policy implementation
- execution and enforcement of laws made by legislature and policies decided by executive
- role of bureaucracy. they exert considerable influence on policy processes fulfilling 4 key functions
- carrying out administration
- offering policy advice
- articulating and aggregating interests
- mantaining pol stability
5.1 carrying out administration
- administer govs business
- bureaucracy = administration
- ranges from:
1. implementation of welfare/social security programmes
2. the regulation of the econ, granting of licenses
3. provision of info and advice to citizens - not mere functionaries
- allowed discretion in deciding how to implement p
- degree of power varies
- policy advisers = ability to reshape polcies they are required to administer
5.2 policy advice
- chief source of info and advice available
- distinguishes civil servants!
1. top level: daily contact
2. middle-ranking
3. junior-ranking - two functions:
1. outline pol options available to ministers
2. review policy proposals (consequences) - required to be neutral
5.2 policy advice: the reality
- no diff btw making and advising on policy
- control the flow of the info!
- info can be reshaped to reflect the preferences of the civil service
- politicians’ main source of specialist knowledge
5.3 articulating interests
- often help to articualte or aggregate interests
- brought into contact w interest groups through implementation tasks
- increased bc of corporatist tendencies
- clientelism: pos and neg
helps mantain consensus
may interfere w actual respons of CS
5.4 political stability
- provide focus of stability and continuity within pol systems
- relevant in develop countries
- depends on the status of bureaucrats as permanent and professional public servants
- can lead to corruption
- may breed a tendency towards arrogance or bias in favor of conservatism
- the image of the bureaucracy
‘specialists without spirit, sensualists without heart’, since they have been largely associated w rationality
- ORGANIZATION OF THE BUREAUCRACY. weber’s theory
- hierarchy
- specialization
- formal rules and regulations
- impersonality
- merit-abased system
- career orientation
- record keeping
ministries having specialized responsibilities (varies btw countris)
LACKS THE ORGANIZATION PART
- why is the organization of the b relevant?
- affects degree to which public scrutiny and pol control over b can be achieved
- influences efficiency and effectiveness
- how does the org look like?
- organized on the basis of function
- construction of departments, ministries and agencies with particualr policy areas in responsibilities
(education, housing, defence, drug control…)
6.1 centralism or decentralism?: centralized
ex communist: china, soviet union
- subject to strict party control and supervision
- institutional pluralism
- as labyrinthe mechanism for interest articulation
ex liberal democracy: france
- constructed on the basis of napoleonic model of adm
- hierarchical, centralized structure of technical expert bodies
6.1 centralized or decentralized?: decentralized
ex: usa
- federal bureaucracy
- operated under formal authority of the pres as chief administrator
- diffuse and unwieldy
- no coordination
- fragmentation:
1. responsibilities of gov and b overlap
2. impact on separation of powers
3. tension btw permanent CS and much smaller number of pol appointees
pol appointees: expected to make loyalty to the adm their priority
civil servants: committed to the growth of their bureau/continuation of services and programmes
- SOURCES OF BUREAUCRATIC POWER. 3 sources are identified
- strategic position of bureaucrats in the policy process
- logistical relationship btw b in the policy process
- status and expertise of b
7.1 strategic position
- policy process offers CS consid influence
- as policy advisers
- knowledge as power!
- policy options can be selected, evaluated and presented as to achieve desired decision
- preferences structure policy debate
- preferences influence contents
- linked btw organized interests and b
powerful alliances!
policy networks
7.2 logistical relationships
operational relationship and distribution of advantage btw ministers and CS
theory of ministerial superiority does not reflect reality
- politicians are heavily outnumbered
- diff career structures (permanent vs temporary)
- role of ministers restricted to offering of strategic guidance
7.3 status and expertise
-> stemming from expertise and specialist k
- meritocratic elite: responsibility for national interest
- emphasis on merit and achievement
- ministers often come ill-prepared and in need for advice and support
- dependance on CS to translate broad goals into practical legislative programmes
- HOW CAN BUREAUCRATS BE CONTROLLED? accountable to… (4)
- political executive
- legislative
- judicial scrutiny
- public
8.1 pol executive and its influence on the b
-> responsibility for government administration
8.2 legislative
- oversight helps ensure political accountabilty
- effective leg control the supply of money
8.3 judicial scrutiny
administrative courts and tribunals resolve conflict btw gov - bureaucracies - citizens
8.4 public
formal: ombudsmand safeguards citizens
informal: media and public may damage their image
