Task 5

Question 1

How can we calculate the relative heredity and environment?

Answer 1

1. Calculate how similar relatives tend to be on a given trait
2. Calculate how much variance there is altogether in the trait of interest
3. Calculate what proportion of that variance is within families and what proportion is between families

Question 2

How can we compare identical and fraternal twins?

Answer 2

Identical twins: take correlation

Fraternal twins: multiply correlation times 2

Question 3

What are nonadditive genetic effects?

Answer 3

The combined effects depend on the presence or absence of the other allele

Question 4

What are between-family influences?

Answer 4

Influences differ from one family to the next (e.g. income, education, religion, raising style)

Question 5

What are within-family influences?

Answer 5

Nonshared, unique because they are unique to each person (e.g. parents treating two children differently)

Question 6

What do results from self and observer reports about twins tell us?

Answer 6

Heritability is additive and there is no common or shared environmental effect
So nearly 0.65 correlation across the Big Five

Question 7

Influence of family and household?

Answer 7

Very little on people’s personality trait levels

Question 8

What is the Contrast effect?

Answer 8

The tendency to emphasize differences between related persons

Question 9

What is the Assimilation effect?

Answer 9

The tendency to emphasize similarities between related persons

Question 10

What are two possible explanations for differing personality traits?

Answer 10

Fluctuating Optimum & Frequency Dependence

Question 11

What is the idea behind a fluctuating optimum behind personality traits?

Answer 11

The ideal level of a characteristics might differ depending on the environmental conditions, which change from one generation and place to the next fluctuating optimum

Question 12

What is the idea behind frequency dependence in personality traits?

Answer 12

There might never be a single ideal level, but rather an ideal balance between different levels of a characteristicfrequency-dependent selection

a. Positive – the more common the better
b. Negative – the less often the better

Question 13

In what 2 ways do the mechanisms “Fluctuating Optimum” and “Frequency Dependence” preserve trait variation?

Answer 13

1. Favouring the reproductive success of individuals who have a genetic inclination to have a particular level of a trait, but both tend to produce roughly equal levels of reproductive success
2. Favouring the reproductive success of individuals whose genetic inclination is more flexible, allowing them to develop either high or low levels of a trait

Question 14

What trait offs are there in the Honesty trait?

Answer 14

High levels:
- Unwilling to exploit others (+)
- Forgo any possible gains from taking advantage (-)
Low levels:
- Gain by exploiting others (+)
-Forgo possible cooperation w/ victims (-)

Question 15

What trait offs are there in the Agreeableness trait?

Answer 15

High levels:
- Gain from continued cooperation (+)
- Cost due to being taken advantage of (-)
Low levels:
- Gain by avoidance of exploitation by others
- Forgo possible gains from continues cooperation w/ others (-)

Question 16

What trait offs are there in the Emotionality trait?

Answer 16

High levels:
- Avoiding harm to oneself and one’s kin (+)
- Being motivated to help kin (+)
- Gaining help from others (+)
- Lose any potential gains from endeavours involving threats (-)
Low levels:
- Greater gains as a result of confronting dangers (+)
- More likely to experience death or serious injury (-)

Question 17

What trait offs are there in the Extraversion trait?

Answer 17

High levels:

• Gain and hold attention gaining friends, allies, potential mates (+)
• Great deal of energy expenditure + possible target of hostility (-)

Question 18

What trait offs are there in the Conscientiousness trait?

Answer 18

High levels:

• Perform many tasks efficiently and accurately gain material advantages (+)
• Expend great deal of energy on tasks that might no yield worthwhile rewards (-)

Question 19

What trait offs are there in the Openness to Exxperience trait?

Answer 19

High levels:

• Discover, learn and invent new things useful in social- or task-related situations (+)
• Expend great deal of energy to something which might be mistaken, dangerous or elicit hostility (-)

Question 20

What kind of altruism is observable in Honesty and Agreeableness?

Answer 20

Reciprocal Altruism

Question 21

What kind of altruism is observable in Emotionality?

Answer 21

Kin Altruism

Question 22

According to Chen, in what society is novelty seeking behavior more advantageous?

Answer 22

In nomadic hunter society more than for sedentary farmers

Question 23

How high is the estimated magnitude of genetic influence in personality?

Answer 23

40-50%; evidence of non additive genetic variance

Question 24

How high is the estimated magnitude of genetic influence on mental ability?

Answer 24

Shared environment dominant influence early in life, later the effects drop to zero

Question 25

How high is the estimated magnitude of genetic influence on psychiatric illnesses?

Answer 25

Schizophrenia: high degree of genetic influence, mostly additive, No shared environmental influence or gender differences
Major depression is less heritable than schizophrenia  0.40
Panic disorder, anxiety and phobias: moderately heritable with few sex differences
Alcoholism: Heritability .50 to .60, mostly additive
Antisocial behaviour: genetic influence is additive and in the range of 0.41 to 0.46

Question 26

How high is the estimated magnitude of genetic influence Social attitudes?

Answer 26

Conservatism and Religiousness: both moderately heritable

Question 27

What does the Costly Signaling Theory implicate?

Answer 27

Individuals compete with one another in sending signals to others about their quality as a mate, friend, and coalition member
× Those seen as having the highest quality have an advantage in being chosen by the highest quality mates, friends, and coalitions

Question 28

What three fundamental strategies of hierarchy negotiation did Lund find?

Answer 28

Deception/Manipulation
Emission of positive externalities
Industriousness

Question 29

What Personality leads a person to show what strategy in negotiating hierarchy?

Answer 29

Extraverts tend to emit positive externalities
Those low on agreeableness tended to use deception and manipulation to get ahead
Those high on conscientiousness tended to use sheer hard work to advance in hierarchies

Question 30

How do the different traits influence the way people extract resources from other people?

Answer 30

People low on agreeableness use coercive strategies (e.g., demanding, criticizing, and yelling) to get what they want
People low on emotional stability use regression strategies (e.g., sulking, pouting, and whining) to get what they want
Those low on extraversion use monetary rewards (e.g., gifts or money) and self-abasement (e.g., degrading themselves) to extract resources from others