Tactics of Manipulation Flashcards
What are the 6 tactics of manipulation?
- Reciprocation
- Liking
- Commitment and Consistency 4. Social Validation
- Authority
- Scarcity
Kuntz and Woolcott (1976
d
[Langer]
‘Because’ ~ we’re used to the word being followed by valid excuse, we allow concessions
[Kuntz & Woolcott]
~ sent greeting cards to strangers, people responded
[Regan]
~ students brought to lab to rate paintings, with confederate Joeo 2 conditions ~ Joe brought back a Coke or came back empty-handedo After, Joe asked for favour ~ buy raffle ticketso Results:• Participants who received Coke bought more raffle tickets• Participants who did not receive Coke bought more raffle tickets if they liked Joe ~ more willing to do favour for someone you like• Participants who received Coke bought more, regardless of liking or not• Obligation to return favour even if you don’t like them~ Coke=10c, average of 2 tickets=50c
[Cialdini, Vincent…]
o Asked students to (a) chaperone juvenile inmates on day trip to zoo or (b) volunteer as counsellor for inmates for 2 hours a week for next 2 years• (a) 17% said yes (b) 0% said yeso Asked students to volunteer as counsellors for 2 hours a week for next 2 years, THEN asked if they would take inmates to zoo• Number of participants saying yes tripled
[Miller]
o Large request ~ volunteer 2 hours a week in mental health agency for 2 yearso Small request ~ volunteer for 2 hours in mental health agencyo If large request presented first~ 75% accepted small request (compared to 29%)o Turn-up rate of volunteers:• Rejection-then-retreat: 85%, compared to small request only: 50%• When someone changes request, more likely to be satisfied with outcome, feel more responsible to live up to agreement
Kenrick & Gutierres]
~ females rated less attractive by males if just watched Charlie’s Angels
[Frenzen & Davis]
~ Tupperware parties• Hold own Tupperware party, invite friends, get commission for selling• When choosing whether or not to buy, liking for hostess twice as important as opinion about products• This principle doesn’t just work with friends, but strangers too ~ we just have to like them!
o [Dion, Eagly]
The Halo Effect ~ ~ attractive people judged as more intelligent, moral, competentBenefits of being beautiful:
• [Landy & Singall]
o Attractive students’ poor essays were given higher gradeo Attractive kids rated as brighter, more successful than unattractive kids even with same report cards.
Hammermesh
~ in US and Canada, physically attractive people earn more money than comparable others who are less attractive
Dipboye
attractive people more likely to be hired for a job (but more likely to groom themselves?)
Mack & Rainey
~ Good grooming more favourable than job qualificationso Got same female applicant to apply for positions dressed well or poorlyo Interviewers claimed that grooming plays small role
Efran & Patterson
o Canadian Federal Electionso Attractive candidates received 2.5 times more votes than unattractiveo Most Canadians denied their votes were influenced by physical appearanceo Attractiveness effect more evident with contenders than established leaders• If you do not know much about candidate, typically base opinions on physical cues, especially for apathetic votes and womeno The Halo Effect flips when judging women in authority• More attractive women seen as less intelligent, capable in position
Kurtzburg
o More likely to see physically unattractive people as more capable of crimeo Two groups of disfigured prisoners ~ surgery or no surgeryo Rehabilitation given to some members of both groupso Results: ~ a year later, regardless of rehab, those with surgery less likely to return to jailo Attractiveness → change in life path, self-confidenceo Attractiveness → avoids self-fulfilling prophecy (dodgy looking→crime)o Attractiveness → still committing crimes, less likely to be convicted
Stewart
o Experimenters sat in 74 court cases, rated attractiveness at start of trialo Compared to severity of crime, verdict, sentenceo Result: ~ more attractive, less likely to be incarcerated, lighter punishment• Attractiveness inversely proportional to strength/severity of crime• Less attractive people committing more serious offences• Attractiveness only affected the length sentence, not conviction• If hot people used attractiveness, then received more severe sentences
Kulka
o Damages rewarded in negligence trials ~ participant in mock juryo When victim more attractive than defendant ~ award was almost twice more
Reingen
attractive fundraised for Heart Association collected twice as many donations.
Warren
Friends, partners, etc. tend to be similar on range of variables (education, intelligence, etc)
Emswiller
o People more likely to give dime to experimenter (dressed hip or straight) if dress style matched
Suedfeld
o ‘Hip’ experimenter received more signatures outside peace rally by hip passersby.
Aune & Basil
o Campus fundraisers doubled contributions by saying “I’m a student too!”
Chartrand & Bargh
o Participant completed task with confederate who tapped foot/touched faceo Participants unconsciously mimicked behaviour → increased liking → task efficiencyo Flipped ~ confederate mimicked gestures of participants• Participants reported liking confederates more
• [Zajonc]
Mere Presence Effect:o Repeated exposure to any stimulus makes it more appealing, and what is unfamiliar or unknown is potentially dangerouso After repeated exposure, if nothing negative happens, negative emotions decrease and positive emotions increase (arousal drops)o If repeat stimulus without awareness, ratings for object rises
Mita
o Participant + friend shown actual photo and mirror image photo of participanto Asked which preferredo Found: ~ women preferred mirror image photo compared to actual photo, friend preferred actual photoo More exposure to mirror image ~ preference
Bornstein
o Participants subliminally exposed to photo of confederate or blank screeno Discussed neutral topics with 2 confederates (same as photo/not)o Single exposure enough to make participant agree with confederate’s opinion and like confederate more
Grush
o Politics ~ correlation between media exposure and chance of candidate winning
Sherif
o 2 groups of boys, instilled strong group identity, intergroup conflicto Made groups like each other by making them cooperate, work towards superordinate common goal
Smith
o Men who saw car with female model rated car as faster, more expensive, better designed… but refused to believe woman had influence on judgemento Advertising: placing product next to model/celebrity → associate person with product
Razran
The Luncheon Techniqueo People are fonder of people and concepts whilst eatingo Political statements gained in approval whilst eatingo Charity events give food → more likely to donateo Sweet flavour encourages prosocial behaviour
Drachman
o Confederate worked on fun or dull task. Participant had power to release them from task or not.o Participant had to complete easy or hard task, rated by confederate.• Positive, negative, mixed / accurate, inaccurateo Results: ~ confederate who praised was more liked, even when inaccurate• Praise does not have to be accurate to work
Rind
~ waitresses who drew smiley faces on bill got more tips
Girard
~ greatest car salesman sent out greeting cards each month saying ‘I like you’
Sherman
o Called and asked people what they’d say if asked to collect money for Cancer Society. ~ people usually say yes to appear niceo Few days later, Cancer Society comes to house to ask to volunteer to collect moneyo 700% increase in volunteerso If you can make someone make public declaration, more likely to be consistent
Freedman
o If asked to put little sticker on front window (small request) first, then more likely to put “Drive Carefully” sign on front lawn
Knox
asked how confident people were just before OR just after placing beto Prior to: rated 3.5 / Just after: rated 4.5-5 (1-7 scale)o Suddenly certain, behaviour changed mindset
Festinger
• We need attitudes to be consistent with behaviour, otherwise experience cognitive dissonance• We try to regain consistency by changing our attitudes• Once we have made decision, we work very hard to justify it
Freedman
• After signing petition that favoured ‘keeping California beautiful’, more likely to but big ugly sign on front lawn 2 weeks later.o 50% agreed even though request not related.• Cognitive Dissonance Theory ~ once agreed to request, attitude changes, action taken consistent with attitudes
Freedman
] Child-rearingo Examined different strategies to elicit compliance in boys• External motivator (threats) vs. internal motivator• Temporary compliance vs. long-term complianceo 5 toys, 4 crappy, 1 robot ~ Don’t play with the robot! >:( / It is wrong to playo External motivator:• Short-term compliance when possibility of punishment (only 1 of 22)• Poor long-term compliance, punishment no longer threat (77% played)o Internal motivator: • Short term compliance (only 1 of 22)• Long term compliance ~ boys generated own reasons for why it was wrong to play with robot (33% played)• Reward ~ must be barely sufficient incentive to actually perform task• Punishment ~ must be barely sufficient incentive
Greenwald
o Ability to be persuaded depends on elaboration (scrutinising arguments)o Manipulator more effective if they lead us to focus on favourable rather than unfavourable thoughts
Reingen
when shown lists of neighbours who’d agreed to donate, more likely to donate
Bandura
~ Social Learning• Social validation can help overcome phobias• Children scared of dogs watched other children playing with dog 20min/dayo Children more likely to play with dog, long-term improvementso Video just as effective as real-life interactiono Worked best when clips showed variety of children playing with dog
O’Conner
• Severely socially withdrawn pre-school children watched film containing different scenes in preschool setting• Each scene showed solitary child watching social activity, then joining in and enjoying• Immediately after, children began to interact with peers at level equal to normal kids• Persisted after 6 week delay
Latané
o Bystander Effect ~ presence of others inhibits helping, assume others will take responsibility, responsibility diffused
Bryan & Test
o LA drivers more likely to help female driver with flat tire if witnessed someone helping another woman changing tire earlier
Rushton
o British adults more willing to donate blood if approached after observing confederate agreeing to donate
Murray
o School anti-smoking campaigns had lasting effect if used same-age peer leaders as teachers
Melamed
o Children who saw positive visit to dentist lowered dental anxieties when child in film was same age
Milgram
~ when reducing power of authority, obedience declinedo E.g. ↓ immediacy/proximity of authority, instruction by phone, legitimacy of authority (run down building)
Hofling
mechanical obedience’ in hospitalso When identifying as doctor, giving prescription over phone, directed nurse to give astrogen-drug to patient (double max dosage) ~ 95% complied
Lefkowitz
• Not necessarily actual authority figures that influence people• Jaywalking study ~ experimenters jaywalked dressed in business suit or casualo Three times as many people when dressed in suit (authority-like)o Authority not related to behaviour
Brehm
Reactance Theory [Brehm]• When freedoms threatened or restricted, we assess free choice with focus on retaining or regaining what was limited in first place• We react against interference by wanting, trying to posses item more than before
Worchel
o Consumer preference study ~ cookies from jar, taste and rate• Jar had 10 or 2 cookies• When only 2 cookies, participants rated cookies more favourablyo Follow-up study: ~ always been scarce vs. become scarce?• Started with jar of 10, replaced by jar of 2 OR only jar of 2 cookies• Change from abundance to scarcity made cookies more tastyo Participants told jar of 10 replaced by jar of 2 because: wrong jar / rater demands• When cookies more scarce because of social demand, rated highest of all
