Summary Pack Flashcards
What is the difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic flagella?
prokaryotic: flagellin protein
eukaryotic: tubulin protein (for flagellla and cilia)
obligate vs facultative (aerobes/anaerobes)
obgligate anaerobes: need absence of O2
obligate aerobes: need O2
facultative anaerobe: can switch to anaerobic (no O2) but prefer O2
Glyoxysome is?
a variation of peroxisome in germinating seeds of some plants
How do cells adhere to ECM?
- focal adhesions (ECM to actin filaments in cell)
2. hemidesmosomes (ECM to intermediate filaments)
Cell junction that allows ions and small molecules to pass from cell to cell (heart contraction) is called?
gap junction
- via connexin
Cell junction that is a gap junction in plant cells?
plasmodesmata
Cell junction that seals and prevents things from passing through? likely found in intestinal tract
tight junction
Cell junctions that provide stability by holding things together?
desmosomes or anchoring junctions
- intermediate filaments
What is the role of phosphofructokinase (PFK) in glycolysis?
regulatory enzyme that regulates the speed at which that rate of glycolysis occurs
What metabolic process occurs in the mitochondrial matrix?
Krebs cycle
pyruvate dehydrogenase to convert pyruvate to acetyl CoA
Generation of glucose from noncarbohydrate carbon subtrates (lactate, glycerol, glucogenic amino acids) =
gluconeogenesis
- occurs in liver and kidneys
For the light reaction, H+ ions are pumped from where to where?
stroma = fluid of chloroplast
to
thylakoid lumen = fluid inside thylakoid disk
What are the reactants and products of light dependent reaction?
H20 is split to replace e- at PSII
ATP and NADPH is produced
What are the reactants and proudcts of light independent reaction?
CO2 is fixed with RuBP, ATP and NADPH are the reducing agents/ energy sources to regenerate RuBisCO
PGAL is formed/3CO2 = 3 turns
1 glucose per 6 turns of Calvin cycle
Where does the light dependent reaction occur?
thylakoid
Where does the Calvin Cycle occur?
stroma of chloroplast
What is photorespiration?
the inefficiency of photosynthesis by “fixing O2” instead of CO2
In terms of cells/tissue layers, where does photosynthesis usually occur in C3 plants?
mesophyll cells
Where does photosynthesis occur in C4 photosynthesis?
bundle sheath cells that are deeper in the leaf and are not exposed to air (O2 not present) - reduces photorespiration
What is the difference of reactants in C4 plants
- utilization of PEP instead of RuBisCo
- production of oxaloacetate/malate
What does malate produce in the bundle of sheath cell?
CO2 and pyruvate
- CO2 enters calvin cycle fixed by rubisco and pyruvate returns to mesophyll and regenerates PEP
When does synapsis occur?
ONLY in prophase 1 (meiosis 1)
- pairing of homologous chromosomes (allows for crossing over of chiasma)
- this does not occur in mitosis or meiosis 2
What are sources of genetic variation due to meiosis?
- crossing over (prophase 1)
- independent assortment (metaphase 1)
- random joining of gametes
Primitive Earth had what atmosphere?
Reducing:
CO, CO2, S, HCN, HCl, H2, H2O, NH3, C4
What were the complex molecules synthesized from the inorganic molecules of primitive earth?
monomers:
amino acids, acetic acid, formaldehyde
What allowed the formation of complex molecules?
via UV light, lightning, radioactivity, heat
What are proteinoids?
abiotic polypeptides - amino acid dehydrate on hot, dry substrates
i.e. amino acids were heated up and formed polypeptides - not formed via translation etc
A sel-organized sphere of lipids that provides a border for chemical reactions to take place can be classified as…
protobionts
- microspheres (a.a) and coacervates (fatty a)
these are formed due to chemical process! not biological
What was the first biotic organism classified as?
primitive heterotrophic prokaryotes - source of organic materials from inorganic molecules (chemical rxn)
What is the only avascular plant division?
Bryophytes
mosses, liverworts, hornworts
- lack vasculature therefore require water environment
The sperm of an angiosperm fuses with what?
2 sperms:
1. fertilizes egg
2. fuse with 2 polar nuclei (polar bodies)
to form triploid nucleus = endosperm
What is double fertilization?
angiosperm fertilization of separate sperms fertilizing egg and polar nuclei
What is the site of photosynthesis in terms of ground tissue ?
Parenchyma
What tissues provide mechanical support in ground tissue?
collenchyma and sclerenchyma
What tissue in the plant has a secondary cell wall?
xylem (except in the pits)
What are two types of xylem cells?
tracheids (allows water to pass through pits)
vessel elements
What are sieve tube elements?
cells that form phloem
- living at maturity
- do not have nuclei/ribosomes
- companion cells parenchyma connected via plasmodesmata
a band of fatty material = suberin, that creates a water impermeable barrier between cells is called?
the Casparian strip
- endodermis of roots
the ability for water to move from one cell to another is called?
symplastic
vs apoplastic is through the cell walls (but do not actually enter the cell)
What phyla is considered a parazoa?
porifera
- sponges do not have true tissue layers or organs
What is the main difference between nematodes and annelids?
annelids are segmented while nematodes are not
otherwise they are both bilateral and have a one way digestion
Which phyla has a complete digestive system with mouth an anus?
chordata
echinodermata (starfish, sea urchins)
Which phyla are deuterostomes?
chordata
echinodermata
What digestion and embryonic dev. do arthropoda have?
one way digestion
protostome
This non-segmented organism uses cilia to draw food into system and lies in freshwater. What phyla?
rotifera
How do snails and clams respirate?
gills
- they have a radula (teeth) and mantle (caco3 shell)
What are invertebrate chordates?
amphixious/lancelets, tunicates
When you’r very active what happens to the pH of your blood?
pH becomes acidic (low pH)
CO2 + H2O become carbonic acid H2Co3
What senses the change in pH in your respiratory system?
low pH, chemoreceptors in the carotid arteries (blood to brain) sense
- impulse to diaphragm
Gastrin, Secretin, Cholecystokinin
gastrin - food in stomach, gastrin enters blood stream to stimulate release of gastric juices
secretin - bicar to reduce acidity of chyme, produced in duodenum
small intestine in response to fats - bile release from gallbladder, stimulates pancreas to release digestive enzyme and bile release from gall bladder (stored and released)
What is the role of calcium in the signal transmission?
at the synaptic cleft, when action potential reaches pre-synaptic cleft
Ca++ channels open and calcium enters the cell (down the gradient into)
Ca++ causes synaptic vesicle to release NT into the synaptic cleft and bind receptor on post-synaptic membr.
once NT is released into the synaptic cleft, if K+ ion channels open, this is a
inhibitory postsnaptic potential
causes hyperpolarization
What enzyme breaks down acetylcholine?
cholinesterase
parasympathetic nerves of the autonomic n.s. of PNS arise from?
cranial and sacral regions
an involuntary, rapid response to stimulus occurs, this is likely a…
reflex arc - sensory, motor, interneuron
*not regulated by the brain
What is the role of the parietal lobe?
(part of cerebral cortex)
- orientation, recognition, perception
retina, cornea, lens, pupil
- list these in order of passage of light
Cornea, pupil, lens, retina
ATP allows for what in myosin and actin?
ATP binds myosin so that it releases from actin and pushes myosin head forward
histamine is released by what cell?
basophils - white blood cell
- inflammatory response
where do b cell and t cells originate?
bone marrow
Antibodies are associated with which lyphocyte
b cells
interleukins stimulates
the proliferation of t and b cells
Cell mediated response is associated with which lymphocyte
t cell (MHC complexes etc)
Humoral Response is associated with which lymphocyte
b cell - antibodies respond to pathogens in the blood/lymph
What is the main difference between Anterior and Posterior pituitary hormones?
Anterior pituitary hormones affect other endocrine glands.
Posterior pituitary directly affects the tissues
Islets of Langerhans, beta cells secrete ____ while alpha cells secrete _____
beta: insulin
alpha: glucagon
Oxytocin and Prolactin are what types of hormones?
peptide hormone!
epinephrine and norepinephrine are what types of hormones?
amino acid hormones “-ine”
melatonin is what type of hormone
amino acid hormone
Keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans, merkel cells are all cells of the?
epidermis - superficial epithelial tissue
What are Merkel cells?
epithelial cells that attach to sensory neurons for touch sensation
What are Langerhans cells?
not to be confused with islets of langerhans in the pancreas!
these are epidtermal tissues that interact with helper T-cells of immune system
What is the role of stratum basale (germinativum)?
contains Merkel cells and stem cells that divide to produce keratinocytes
- attached by the basement membrane
How do keratinocytes form?
- from basement membrane specifically, stratum basale (germinatvitum)
keratinocytes - pushed to top layer of epidermis
- accumulate keratin and die
- lose cytoplasm/nucleus/organelles
- lamellar granules make it water repellent
the papillary region and reticular region are regions of the?
Dermis
This is connective tissue (collagen and elastin)
- hair follicles, glands, nerves, blood vessels
(under the epidermis, above the hypodermis)
Egg development in the ovary is like sperm development in the ____.
Seminiferous tubules in the testes
Male hormones are produced in the?
Androgens and testosterone is produced in interstitial cells of the testes
Sperm matures in the …
epididymis
What is the acrosomal reaction?
- contact with the zona pellucida triggeres this
- digestive enzymes from acrosomal cap
- breakdown of glycoprotein membrane of zona pellucida
- expose oocyte plasma membrane
The cavity formed in the gastrula is called the
archenteron - opening is blastopore
The chorion forms the…
placenta
- outer membrain for gas exhange
What structures contribute to the formation of the placenta?
chorion and endometrium
The umbilical cord is formed from which embryonic structure?
allantois sack
What are the differences between birds/reptiles vs placental mammals in terms of the yolk sac?
- birds/reptiles: nutrient support
- mammals: first site of blood production
The notocord is developed from what structure after gastrulation? What does it develop into?
mesoderm
structural support such as vertebrates
The neural tube develops into what?
central nervous system
How does the neural tube arise?
from the neural plate which is from the primitive streak of the epiblasts in the blastocyst
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics?
lamarkian argument to natural selection
- use and disues
Hardy-Weinberg calculates allele frequencies when there is no change in evolution. What are the factors to NO evolutionary change?
- no natural selection
- no mutation
- no gene flow
- no genetic drift
- random mating
Allopatric and Sympatric evolution result in…
divergent evolution
allopatric is 2 species diverge and different environments sympatric is same environment but still diverge
If generation F2 hybrids survive but have reduced fertility this is an example of what in terms of gene flow?
- barrier to gene flow - reproductive isolation
- postzygotic hybrid breakdown
For an age structure pyramid, if all tiers are relatively equal in width, what does this indicate about the population growth
= stable population
= zero population growth
If a population has a a large ratio of young individuals compared to elderly, what does this indicate regarding population growth?
steep, rapidly growing
A male fish that attacks other male fish with red stripes is found to attack a red coloured card. What type of behaviour is this?
Fixed action pattern/ modal action pattern = sign stimulus
- a behaviour that almost inevitably runs to completion
A wasp uses a pinecone as a landmark to find their nest, if the pinecone is removed and the wasp can no longer find it, what is this learning called?
Spatial learning - form of associative learning
Random movement of insects due to sudden vibrations can be an example of what movement?
kinesis
- UNDIRECTED movement in response to stimulus
mosquitoes move towards the light. What type of movement is this?
phototaxis
- taxis is the DIRECTED movement in response to stimulus
Altruistic behaviour is defined as?
risking one’s own safety to defend other animals to increase inclusive fitness of relatives rather than of self
i.e. kin selection
What copies DNA to RNA in transcription?
RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase requires/does not require a primer?
does not!
DNA polymerase requires a primer to attach to 3’OH, but RNA pol does not
What is the densest part of a cell?
- nuclei
In centrifugation what are the order of pellets of cells?
First (most dense) nucleus mitochondria, chloroplast/lysosome/peroxisome vesicles ribosomes, viruses etc
The lac operon is an inducible or repressible system?
inducible
the presence of lactose binds to the repressor to release it from the operator which turns transcription “ON”
The trp operon is an inducible or repressible system?
repressible
the presence of tryptophan binds to the repressor so that it can bind to the operator to turn transcription “ON”
- in this case tryptophan is a corepressor
When one gene has multiple phenotypes this is known as?
pleiotropy (i.e. sickle cell anemia)
When many genes has a single phenotype, this is known as?
polygenetic inheritance (i.e. height)
this elephant population is stable and has relatively low number of offspring, what type of species is this and what type of survivorship curve does it likely have?
K selected species - hovers at carrying capacity
- Type I, many survive at young age
This population has high growth rates and less crowded niches. It has many offspring, but few survive till adulthood, what is this species type and survivorship curve?
r-selected species
- Type III, many die off real quick
