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Physiology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the role of histamine?

A

triggers inflammatory response and dilates blood vessels to increase blood flow and immune cells to damaged tissue

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2
Q

What are the roles of cytokines?

A
  • fever rsponse

- activate B lymphocytes –> immunoglobin

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3
Q

Which cells are involved in allergic response?

A

basophils and eosinophils (granulocytes)

- also involved with parasites

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4
Q

What cells do MHCII and MHC I bind to?

A
  • helper T cells (MHC I)

- cytotoxic T cells (MHC II)

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5
Q

What cells can produce a memory-driven response?

A
  • B cells and T cells
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6
Q

Where does an antigen bind the antibody?

A
  • N terminus of antibody
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7
Q

What structure focuses light in the eye on the retina?

A

Lens

  • shape and focal length controlled by cilliary muscles
  • focus image onto retina
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8
Q

What does the cornea do?

A
  • focuses light rays

- at the front of the eye!

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9
Q

What are chondrocytes?

A

cells that synthesize cartilage

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10
Q

Differentiate osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

A

Osteoblasts: secretion of organic constituents of bone matrix. Mature into osteocytes
Osteoclasts: bone reabsorption, bone breaks down, Ca2+ release to blood

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11
Q

What are two methods of bone formation?

A
  • endochondral ossification: chondro - cartilage - cartilage to bone
  • intramembranous ossification: undifferentiated mesenchymal cells to bone
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12
Q

Yellow marrow vs Red Marrow

A
  • yellow is inactive and infliltrated in adipose

- red blood formation

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13
Q

What are the circles of bony matrix called

A

lamellae

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14
Q

Osteon vs osteocye

A

Osteon is the concentric circle of bony matrix (lamellae) + the haversian canal
Osteocyte: bone cells - osteoblasts and osteocytes

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15
Q

Tetanus vs tonus

A

Tetanus: contractions of a muscle combine and are very strong and become continuous when stimuli so frequent, muscle cannot relax
Tonus: state of partial contraction; never fully relaxed

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16
Q

What is the point of attachment of a muscle to a stationary bone?

A
  • origin

- proximal end of the muscle

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17
Q

What is the point of attachment of a muscle to the bone that moves?

A
  • insertion

- distal end of muscle

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18
Q

What are chylomicrons?

A

lipid droplets

- transported from small intestine to blood (circulatory) via lymphatic system

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19
Q

Is osmosis active or passive process?

A

passive. (diffusion of water…)

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20
Q

In which system do hormones travel? circulatory/lymphatic

A

Circulatory

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21
Q

What are the 2 functions of the lymphatic system?

A
  • collect excess interstitial fluid and return to circulatory to maintain balance of fluids
  • absorb chylomicrons from small intestine and deliver to cardiovascular circulation
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22
Q

Is gas exhange a passive or active process?

A

passive

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23
Q

What is extracellular digestion?

A

molecules broken down outside of the cell

i.e. stomach churning; HCl acidic conditions to secrete pepsinogen

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24
Q

Where are carbs digested?

A
  • mouth: salivary amylase
  • stomach: NOPE (mechanical breakdown only)
  • small intestine: pancreatic amylase, sucrase, lactase
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25
Q

What enzyme is involved in digestion of starch?

A
  • amylase (salivary and pancreatic)

- starch to maltose

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26
Q

What are the stages of spermatogenesis?

A 
spermatogonia
1 spermatocyte
2 spermatocyte
spermatid
spermatozoa
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27
Q

During ovulation, where is the egg released into from the ovary?

A

abdominal cavity (before fallopian tube)

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28
Q

Which embryonic germ layer is the reproductive system a part of?

A

Mesoderm

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29
Q

Which embryonic germ layer are nerves a part of?

A

Ectoderm

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30
Q

Which embryonic germ layer is the thyroid a part of?

A

Endoderm

31
Q

At what stage does the embryo’s development become to differentiate into germ layers?

A

Gastrula - gastrulation

32
Q

What are the four extra-embryonic membranes?

A
  • amnion: amniotic fluid
  • chorion: surrounds amnion (sac)
  • allantois: blood vessels –> umbilical cord
  • yolk: blood vessels
33
Q

What are the parts of the adrenal gland and what do they produce?

A
  • Cortex: mineral corticoids; sex hormones; corticol steroids
  • Medulla: catecholamines (norepinephrines, a.a.)
34
Q

Differentiate the anterior pituitary to the posterior pituitary

A

Anterior pituitary: stimulated by the hypothalamus to produce direct hormones
Posterior pituitary: hypothalamus produces hormones and stores it in the posterior. Oxytocin, ADH

35
Q

How are plasma calcium levels affected?

A
  1. Calcitonin: thyroid -> decrease Ca2+ concentration; inhibit Ca2+ release from blood
  2. PTH: parathyroid –> raises Ca2+ concentration in blood; release Ca2+ in bone and decrease Ca2+ excretion out of blood in kidneys

antagonistic !!

36
Q

What is the role of bile and where is it formed?

A
  • bile emulsifies fats
  • bile is synthesized in the liver
  • released in the gall bladder
  • therefore, gall stones - would inhibit digestion of fats
37
Q

What is the main site of digestion?

A

small intestine:

  • chemical digestion
  • proteins, disaccharids, starch, fats/lipids all in small intestine
38
Q

What digestion occurs in the stomach?

A
  • protein digestion via pepsin
39
Q

What digestion occurs in the mouth?

A
  • salivary amylase

- starch to maltose (disaccharide)

40
Q

What are some functions of the liver?

A
  • breakdown a.a. to urea
  • regulation of blood sugar levels
  • detoxification of poisons
  • storage of glycogen
  • ## synthesis of angiotensinogen
41
Q

Where are red blood cells formed?

A

red bone marrow

42
Q

Where is erythropoietin mainly formed?

A

kidneys

43
Q

What does bilirubin do?

A
  • used in formation of bile salts
  • formed in breakdown of rbc
  • liver removes it from bloodstream
44
Q

Endocrine vs exocrine glands.

A

Endocrine: hormones into bloodstream
Exocrine: chemical substances through ducts

45
Q

Is glucagon a pancreatic exocrine or endocrine secretion?

A
  • endocrine
  • it helps increase blood glucose levels in response to low blood glucose
  • degrades glycogen, decreases uptake by muscles
46
Q

What are lacteals?

A
  • part of small intestine villi
  • villi have capillaries and lacteals
  • lymphatic vessels
  • large fatty acids and glycerol pass into lacteals (reconverted to fats) later empty into central circulatory system
  • amino acids and glucose go into the bloodstream
47
Q

What is the role of vitamin k in the digestive system and where?

A
  • vitamin K is absorbed in the large intestine
48
Q

Where is kidney filtrate produced?

A
  • glomerulus from the blood (capillaries)

- enters the bowman’s capsule

49
Q

What is the direction of reabsorption of water or solutes?

A
  • filtrate in the nephron to the blood
50
Q

Ascending limb _____ to water and ____ solutes

A

impermeable to water

absorb solutes

51
Q

What happens if the the ascending limb is inhibited in the reabsorption of solutes?

A
  • more solute will remain in the filtrate once in the DCT and collecting duct
  • more solute = more water remains in filtrate; compensate to have same osmolarity
  • more volume!
52
Q

If protein is lost in the glomerulus, what is the consequence of the change in osmolarity?

A
  • filtrate will have higher osmolarity, blood will have lower osmolarity.
  • tissues in the body will have higher osmolarity than blood
  • water/fluid moves from low osmolarity to high osmolarity (in terms of solute it moves from high osmolarity to low)
  • therefore fluid moves to tissues - edema
53
Q

What is another name for vasopressin? Where is it produced/stored?

A
  • ADH
  • produced in hypothalamus
  • stored in posterior pituitary
  • increases water reabsoprtion
54
Q

Where is aldosterone produced? What is the role of aldosterone?

A
  • adrenal cortex
  • acts on DCT and collecting duct
  • conserve sodium
  • secrete potasium
  • conserve water
  • increase blood pressure
55
Q

What hormones does the adrenal cortex produce?

A
  • mineralcorticoids: aldosterone
  • glucocoticoids: cortisol
  • androgens: testosterone
56
Q

What does vitamin D do?

A
  • converted into active form by PTH, increases blood Ca2+ levels
  • stimulates intestinal a2+ absorption
57
Q

What does cortisol do?

A
  • raise blood glucose levels
  • gluconeogenesis
  • deccrease protein synthesis
  • reduce immune and inflammatory response
58
Q

PTH increases/decreases blood calcium levels?

A
  • increases blood calcium levels
  • calcium in bone - osteoporosis ; via osteoClasts
  • vitamin D; calcium absorption
59
Q

Calcitonin increases/decreases blood calcium levels?

A
  • decreases blood calcium levels

- deposits blood calcium to bone matrix

60
Q

What part of the brain regulates temperature?

A
  • hypothalamus
61
Q

What happens to ACh in the synaptic cleft?

A

acetylcholinesterase inactivates acetylcholine by breaking it down in the synaptic cleft after it is released off the receptors of the post synaptic cleft

62
Q

Ligaments vs tendons

A
  • ligaments: bone to bone

- tendons: muscle to bone

63
Q

Are action potentials intercellular or intracellular?

A
  • intracellular
  • action potentials cannot pass from one muscle fibre to the next
  • it is intracellular with respecto to the release of Ca2+ in the SR to initiate the sliding of actin and myosin filaments = contraction
64
Q

T- tubule? What happens here?

A

ACh enters and depolarizes t-tubule - signals SR release calcium
- nonfunctioning ACh receptor means no ACh received by t-tubule and therefore no muscular contraction

65
Q

Where do B cells remain dormant?

A
  • lymph nodes

- until activated by antigen - lymphocytes are specific to

66
Q

What is the main function of activated B cells?

A
  • produce antibodies to be secreted

- antibodies (4 protein subunits) - therefore more RER (secretory proteins)

67
Q

Where do lymphocytes orginate?

A
  • bone marrow! all blood cells originate in bone marrow!!

- lymphocytes can be found in spleen and lymph nodes but do not originate here

68
Q

B cell vs T cell specific functions

A
  • B cells: release antigen specific antibodies (humoral); surface antigens
  • T cells: cell mediated (adaptive immunity) ; viral antigens outside infected cell (foreign); activates macrophages or directly attack
69
Q

Hydrostatic pressure vs osmotic pressure

What happens in the capillary?

A
  • high hydrostatic pressure pushes out solute
  • high osmotic pressure pushes water out
  • in the capillary: arteriole end: high hydrostatic pressure (solute out) (low osmotic pressure)
    venule end: low hydrostatic pressure; high osmotic pressure: pushes water in
70
Q

What is Starling’s hypothesis?

A
  • capillary physiology
  • hydrostatic/osmotic pressures
  • not all fluid can be returned to vessel; fluid travels through interstitial spaces, picked up by lymphatic system, filtered through lymph nodes, returned to circulatory via thoracic duct
71
Q

Which hormone, secreted only by fertilized embryo, functions to maintain the corpus luteum?

A

human chorionic gonadotropin maintains the corpus luteum. Previously, the corpus luteum is maintained by LH

72
Q

External fertilization is asexual or sexual reproduction?

A

asexual reproduction
- fusion of female and male gametes when female deposits her eggs and male gametes fertilize somewhere in the environment

73
Q

What does the pancreas produce? (digestive enzymes)

A 
carboxypeptidase
trypsin
chymotrypsin
lipase
pancreatic amylase
74
Q

Between the medulla and the loop of henle what has a higher concentration of salt? Which way does salt flow passively/actively?

A

loop of henle = low salt conc.
medulla = high salt conc.

  • salt flows passively from high to low (medulla to henle)
  • active transport of salt out of the loop of henle to the medulla

DAT Biology (12 decks)

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