Bio Test Prep Flashcards
What is speciation?
Development of a new species due to selective pressures that act on a gene pool and evolve independently.
Change of genetic traits and therefore expression of gene frequencies
They must become reproductively isolated.
What is adaptive radiation?
When one single species becomes many different species.
New species have distinctive lifestyles and environment.
i.e. Darwin’s finches is an example of adaptive radiation. One finch species to 13 new species.
Rapid stimulation of a muscle results in…
a summation of muscle contractions.
Very rapid stimulation results in a constant contraction = tetanus
Undifferentiated plant cells are called?
Cambium. This divides into xylem and phloem. It is a layer in between xylem and phloem
What is a vestigal figure?
Structure that lost original function through evolution.
If a structure is not necessary, but still has a function it is not considered vestigal. i.e. tonsils are not vestigal - immunological function.
human tails are vestigal, hip bones of whales etc.
What hormone peaks just before ovulation?
estrogen
What hormone peaks during ovulation?
LH and FSH follows
What hormone peaks after ovulation?
progesterone and estrogen follows
What is the difference between habituation and extinction?
Extinction is when the stimulus is no longer applied - lack of stimulus (usually following an example of classical conditioning) and the response disappears with the stimulus
Habituation is when the stimulus continues to be applied - stimulus present (i.e. a bell ringing in the background) and the response disappears without the removal of stimulus
What are tracheophytes?
plants that contain vascular tissue
2 classes: gymnosperms and angiosperms
What are bryophytes?
non-vascularized plants
i.e. mosses and liverwarts
What generation is dominant for tracheophytes?
Sporophytes
What generation dominates the bryophyte
Gametophyte
What is the difference between sporophytes and gametophytes?
- Sporophytes are diploid multicellular.
Develops from the zygote.
Represents the asexual phase. - Gametophytes: are haploid multicellular. (one set of chromosomes). These forms the zygote.
Represents the sexual phase.
What are the functions of the pancreas?
Endocrine function: secrete insulin and glucagon to decrease and increase blood glucose respectively
Exocrine function: secrete lipase, trypsin, amylase for digestion
What organ secretes bile?
- production of bile is in the liver
- the gall bladder stores the bile
and is secreted by the gall bladder - into the small intestine (duodenum)
What are the physiological roles of thyroid hormones?
- elevates basal metabolic rate
- gonadal development
- embryonic/fetal development (CNS)
What are symptoms of hypothyroidism?
- low basal metabolic rate (decreased in HR, body temp, INCR. weight)
- lethargic
- intolerance to cold
What are symptoms of hyperthyroidism?
- increased basal metabolic rate (weight LOSS)
- muscular weakness (weight loss)
- protruding eyes
Where does glycolysis occur?
cytoplasm!
What is the cause in the varying range of ATP produced by a full oxidation of glucose?
transport of e- to mitochondria via malate aspartate shuttle which transfers e- cytoplasm/mitochondria via NADH -> NAD+ or G3P dehydrogenase NADH -> NAD+ —> FADH2 –> FAD
2 ATP are cost when us when using G3P dehydrogenase when transporting e- from NADH cytoplasm (glycolysis) to FAD in cytoplasm since NADH would yield 3 ATP and FADH2 would yield 2ATP. Glycolysis produces 2 NADH so a net loss of 2ATP.
What is the maximum yield of ATP from a full oxidation of glucose via glycolysis, TCA, oxidative phosphorylation?
38 ATP (using the malate-aspartate shuttle) from just oxidative phosphorylation, max is 34 ATP
In a gene inducible system what does the repressor bind?
transcription does not occur when: the repressor binds to the operator
transcription occurs when: the inducer binds to the repressor
In a gene repressible system what binds?
transcription does not occur when the repressor binds the corepressor complex to bind the operator
transcription occurs without binding
What is the role of nitrogen fixing bacteria?
converts atmospheric nitrogen to ammonium
What is the role of nitrifying bacteria?
converts ammonium to nitrities to nitrAte
What is the role of denitrifying bacteria
converts nitrAtes to free nitrogen gas (return back to atmosphere)
What is the role of decomposers in the nitrogen cycle?
decomposition of plants and animals returns nitrogen to the cycle in the form of ammonium
In an inflammatory response, what do allergens bind with in the respiratory system?
Mast cells in the alveoli bind to the allergens (antibody on mast cells bind with antigen of the allergen)
- mast cells secrete histamine inducing inflammation and an immune response
What is the order of development to form an embryo?
polar body + sperm cell , zygote, morula, blastula/blastocyst (implantation occurs), gastrula (opening of the gastrula is called the blastophore) - differentiation
What is the genetic material of a virus?
DNA or RNA!
Do development of tissues influence other tissues?
Yes, the process of induction in certain tissues, especially in young tissues (embryology).
The wing of a bat and the arm of a human is what type of structure?
Homologous structure. Common evolution (similar structure) , different function
Natural selection is the process by which…
random mutations are retained and if useful are passed to the next generation “fitness”
Parathyroid hormone influences blood calcium levels how so?
increases plasma calcium
indirectly stimulates osteoClasts
Calcitonin influences blood calcium levels how so?
decreases plasma calcium
indirectly stimulates osteoBlasts (bone builders)
What is the catalyst in photosynthesis?
chlorophyll
What is the role of light in photosynthesis?
- reactant
- necessary for the light reaction
- light is absorbed by the chlorophyll and breaks down CO2 and H2O bringing its e- down to lower energy states
Steroid hormones bind the receptors…
cytoplasm
- steroids can readily pass through the lipid bilayer
- they are small, non-polar (like outside of the bilayer)
Protein hormones bind their receptors…
on the PM membrane of cells
- cannot pass through therefore needs to bind on the membrane first
What are structures/cells that contribute to fighting infections in the respiratory system
- hairs, lysozymes
- mucus, cilia
- alveoli -> macrophages and mast cells
- muscosal surfaces -> antibodies
Where does the ETC occur on an aerobic prokaryote?
cell membrane
What is the difference in DNA polymerase between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
- Prokaryotic DNA polymerase I II III for DNA replication
- Eukaryotic DNA alpha, beta, gamma
What are some key (testable) differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
- prokaryotes do not have membrane bound organelles - no nuclear membrane
- prokaryotes have one origin of replication; eukaryotes have multiple origins of replication
- prokaryotes have one singular chromosomes (often circular) eukaryotes have multiple
- both have ribosomes, cytoplasm, (cell wall)
“descent with modification” is likely what evolutionary theory
Darwin’s survival of the fittest, natural selection, adaptation - mutations
“inheritance of acquired characteristics”
Lamarkian - use or disuse
What are agglutinins?
Agglutinins are antibodies that recognize blood types (recognize the antigens of other blood types)
Type O- blood has antibodies or antigens for A, B, Rh+ blood?
Type O- has the antibodies for A, B, Rh+ blood.
Type O- has no antigens.
Carotene is a steroid, protein, or neither?
- neither
“-ene” carbon chain
Vitamin D is a steroid, protein, or neither?
steroid
Where does spermatogenesis occur?
in the seminiferous tubules of the testes
What is the order of sperm development?
Germ cell Spermatogonium (aided by Sertoli cells - provide environment etc - stimulated by FSH) Mitosis Primary spermatocyte Meiosis I Secondary spermatocyte Meiosis II Spermatids Mature sperms
Where does sperm fully mature?
epididymis
What is the route of sperm?
Seminiferous tubules in the testes (production)
Epididymis (maturation)
Vas deferens (combine with fluids)
Urethra
What is the first major part of photosynthesis?
Splitting of water by light. - the light reaction
photosystem II (P680) is the enzyme catalyst in this reaction
Producing O2, Hydrogen ions to drive the gradient to convert CO2 to usable carbohydrates (dark rxn), and e-
e- are used to drive the dark reaction in it’s redox rxn
How are motor neurons are ___ while sensory neurons are ____?
motor neurons are efferent (exit the CNS towards muscle to cause mvt)
sensory neurons are afferent (from stimuli to the CNS)
(think A before E) - like the kidneys afferent is towards the centre (glomerulus) E is leaving the glomerulus (exit)
What is the role of the acrosome of a sperm?
penetrate the ovum membrane to fertilize
- the acrosome has enzymes that penetrate the corona radiata and then the zona pellucida
Pavlovian conditioning is an example of…
classical conditioning
autonomic response in response to a stimulus
How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?
reinforcement to condition stimulus
What are the reproductive parts of a flower? is this an angiosperm or gynosperm? what is the dominant generation?
- Male: stamen - anther: microspores
- Female: pistil - ovary: megaspore
- angiosperm
- sporophyte dominant - diploid dominant (like all tracheophytes)
Dicots and monocots are classes of ____?
angiosperms
Dicotyledon structure:
- two seeded leaves (two cotyledons) inside the seed coat
- endosperm inside the leaves
What is an endosperm?
the tissue that provides the fertilized embryo nutrition
Monocots structure:
- one seed leef (one cotyledon) in the seed coat
- endosperm is outside
Characteristics of leaves, stem, roots, and flower of monocots:
- straight line veins
- fleshy stems
- short and stringy roots
- petals in sets of 3s
Characteristics of leaves, stem, roots, and flower of dicots:
- net veined leaves
- vascular bundle stems with cambium, woody
- long tap root
- petals in sets of 4s or 5s
What is the result of a nondisjunction?
failure of homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis causing extra or missing chromosomes 2n+/- 1
Nondisjunction in meiosis I results in…
monosomy (0 chromosomes), monosomy, trisomy (2 chromosomes), trisomy
(note + 1 from a normal gamete)
Nondisjunction in meiosis II results in…
normal, normal (1 chromosome), monosomy, trisomy
How does gas exchange occur with insects?
Tracheael breathing. CO2 and O2 is exchanged in tracheae.
Tracheae are air filled tubes, exposed to the outside via spiracles.
What are annelids?
Segmented ringed worms - earthworms, leches
- invertebrate
- bilateral symmetry
How does gas exchange occur with annelids?
gas exchange an respiration occurs directly on mucus cells of their skin/body wall
Coniferous forests belong in which biome(s)
Taiga and Temperate Coniferous Forest
What is the difference between Taiga and Temperate Coniferous forests?
Taiga: - aka boreal - long cold winters - less rain - THIN soil i.e. spruce, moss, lichens, moose, deer (northern Canada)
Temperate Coniferous:
- cold and dry
- follows the rhythm of the seasons more
- do not shed leaves
i. e. beavers, bears, squirrels, redwood, pine, cedar
What is heterodont dentition?
- different kinds of teeth
i. e. mammals
Poikilotherm?
an organism that varies internal temperature - coldblooded
- amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates
The mesencephalon is which part of the brain?
midbrain
The telencephalon is which part of the brain?
prosencephalon - forebrain
The medulla is which part of the brain? (what’s its function)
rhombencephalon - hindbrain
medulla is the autonomic functions (breathing, digestion, motor/sensory etc…)
The cerebellum is which part of the brain?
rhombencephalon - hindbrain
rhombencephalon - the hindbrain looks kinda like a rhombus upside down
The diencephalon is which part of the brain?
prosencephalon - forebrain
What is the difference between excretion and secretion?
excretion is the removal of materials (wastes, water, salts)
secretion is the movement of material from one point to another
Skin, liver, pancreas, lungs, kidney. With regards to excretion and secretion, which one is the one left out.
Pancreas. The pancreas secretes pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, trypsin, and chymotrypsin.
Where are fats digested?
some salivary lipase
main site of lipid digestion is the duodenum where the pancreas secretes pancreatic lipase and the liver produces bile salts -> gall bladder secretes to breakdown lipids for digestion
What is endocytosis and does it require a carrier molecule to move material in a cell?
the infolding of the plasma membrane
does not require a carrier molecule since it is just folding whatever is just on the outside border of the plasma membrane
What is the function of tRNA?
- carrier for amino acid molecules
- codes for DNA
- note: tRNA is not a template RNA (template RNA = mRNA)
Are all RNAs single stranded?
for the most part yes, but tRNA has hairpin structures that cause it to be double stranded loop segments of RNA
I band
A band
H zone
Which ones change?
A band stays the same because it is just the length of the entire myosin overlapping the actin
I band and H zone change since
I band is the band of which there is only actin
H zone is the zone of which there is only myosin (between the actin)
Enriched blood from a mother moves from placenta through umbilical cord and into the unborn fetus how so?
- ductus venosus connects umbilical vein with IVC (mixed oxygenated and deoxygenated)
- into left atrium (shunt called foramen ovale) - foramen ovale allows blood from RA to LA
- high pressure in lungs (cuz fluid filled)
- ductus arteriosis: vessel between pulmonary artery and aorta - bypassing the lungs
What is Pterophyta?
ferns
- vascular plants (sporophyte)
- reproduce with spores (gametophyte)
What is Bryophyta?
mosses, liverworts, hornworts
- non-vascular plants
- require moisture
Where does ribosome synthesis occur?
eukaryotic ribosome assembly occurs in the nucleus and exported into the cytoplasm
What secretes hCG?
human chorionic gonadotropin
- secreted by EMBRYONIC tissues only (i.e. implanted blastocyst)
- pregnancy tests test for this
- maintains the corpus luteum
What does the corpus luteum secrete?
progesterone to maintain the endometrium
What is the circulatory system of an earthworm?
5 aortic arches (5 hearts)
2 main vessels (dorsal and ventral)
What is the circulatory system of a fish?
2 chambered heart
One blood flow circuit
What is the circulatory system of a grasshopper (insects)?
open circulatory system
haemolymph in body cavity
The binding of a molecule to the active site other than its substrate is =
competitive inhibition
Protein digestion in the stomach is via which enzyme?
pepsin
Protein digestion in the duodenum is via which enzyme?
trypsin and chymotrypsin
The medulla has a high/low concentration of salt.
high concentration of salt
How do bacteria reproduce?
binary fission:
- single cell divides into two identical daughter cells
What is the food storing tissue of a plant embryo?
endosperm
What are the tissues of animal embryos?
ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
Define imprinting.
Environmental patterns/objects to a developing organism during critical period which becomes accepted permanently as elements of behavioural environment
When is cytokinesis unequal?
During oogenesis - formation of 1 large ovum and 3 polar bodies (unable to be fertilized)
What organisms have the most biomass? Least?
producers (grass etc) - most biomass
tertiary consumers - least biomass
Nucleotide vs Nucleoside.
Nucleotide: purine, pyrimidine, sugar, phosphate
Nucleoside: has no phosphate backbone - just the bases + sugar
What are chordates that are invertebrates?
amphixous and tunicates
- all other chordates are vertebrates
How many turns of the Calvin cycle is required to make one mole of glucose?
6 cycles
fix 6 Carbons from CO2 to make 1 mole of glucose.
3 CO2 required (+RuBP - 3C) for one cycle to make 2 G3P/PGAL
At what stage of embryonic development does a hollow sphere of cells develop?
Blastula (formed from the morula)
When is there a solid ball of cells in embryonic development?
Morula (prior to blastula development)
When the morula develops to the blastula what is the key feature that is developed?
Blastocoel. The hollow fluid filled cavity that the morula develops to form the blastocyst.
How many strands of original parental DNA is present after 5 rounds of replication?
(1/2)^5 = 1/32 has parent. ~3.13%
Autonomic N.S. are what type of nerves?
motor neurons
- motor neuron from CNS to next motor neuron
- motor neuron from first to effector muscle/target
Which division of the PNS originates in the thoracic and lumbar region of the spinal cord?
- sympathetic nervous system
motor neurons from the thoracic and lumbar regions
Where does the parasympathetic nervous system neurons originate from?
- parasympathetic - cranial and sacral regions
What are the two divisions of “neurons” of the PNS
sensory (afferent)
motor (efferent)
What is a fixed action pattern?
- complex, coordinated, innate behavioural response to specific patterns of stimulation in the environment
- controlled from all levels of the CNS
i. e. mvt of herd of animals
Simple reflex pattern
- simple reflex pattern relays in the spinal cord
- reflex arc
Innate behaviour?
behaviour that is genetically hardwired to an organism. Predictable behaviours that are performed in all members of that species
Startle response
startle reflex/involuntary response to unexpected stimuli (hot stove remove hand)
- reflex/reaction of the brain/cerebrum
What embryonic structure develops into the umbilical vessels = umbilical cord?
Allantois
What embryonic structure develops into the placenta?
Chorion
What is the membrane bund vesicle that contains enzymes for cellular digestion?
Lysozyme
How is a phagosome involved in digestion
- “mechanical”
cannot actually engage in breakdown of contents! it must recruit a lysozyme with hydrolytic enzymes to digest the components
Differentiate transformation from transduction of bacterial DNA.
transduction: a virus attaches and injects it’s DNA (induces)
transformation: bacteria picks of foreign DNA from environment
What is the embryonic layer of the gastrula that develops into the bladder lining?
endoderm
- epithelial lining (most inner)
What induces the follicle to rupture in the menstrual cycle?
- one big LH surge that starts off everything
- ovum is released from the ovary = ovulation
What hormone forms the corpus luteum?
- LH forms the corpus luteum and the corpus luteum will secrete progesterone and estrogen (second peaks)
Which hormone peaks twice in the menstrual cycle?
estrogen: prior to LH surge and one with progesterone (just follows)
