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EM: > SUGER 2 > Flashcards

SUGER 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Label this including layers of the epidermis

A

for layers of the epidermis it’s Come Lets Get Sun Burned

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2
Q

Difference between Pacinian Corpuscle and Meissner’s Corpuscle

A
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3
Q

name 7 functions of the skin?

A
  1. Barrier: to trauma, light, pathogens etc
  2. Sensation
  3. Temporature: blood flow, erection of hairs, release of sweat
  4. Immunity: specialised langerhans cells
  5. Permits movement and growth: elastic and recoil properties
  6. Excretion: waste products like urea removed by sweat
  7. Endocrine: synthesis of vitamin D
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4
Q

why does the right kidney lie lower?

A

it is pushed down by the liver on the right

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5
Q

at what vertebral level are the kidneys found?

A

T12-13

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6
Q

what does the Wolffian duct form?

A
  • Vas deferens
  • Epididymis
  • Seminal vesicles
  • Ejaculatory duct
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7
Q

what is the uteric bud?

A

it is a bud from the mesonephric duct. it forms the the ureters, caleces and collecting ducts

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8
Q

what are the 3 embryological kidneys?

A
  • Pronephros
    • dissapears at the 4th week
  • Mesonephros
    • gives the mesonephric duct
    • dissapears at the 2nd month gestation
  • Metanephros
    • develops in pelvis then moves into the abdomen
    • functions at 12 weeks
    • permanent
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9
Q

what are the 4 functions of the kidneys?

A
  • Gluconeogenesis
  • Hormone production
  • Waste removal
  • Water/acid-base/ion balance
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10
Q

what happens to osmolarity as you go further into the medulla?

A

it increases so in the loop of henle water is forced out of the lumen and is reabsorbed

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11
Q

What are the actions of angiotensin II other than in producing aldosterone

A
  • it increases sympathetic activity
  • it shares functions with aldosterone
    • it causes tubular Na+ and Cl- reabsorption and K+ excretion in the kidney. Thereby causing H20 reabsortion
  • It causes arteriolar vasoconstriction
  • it causes the posterior pirtuitary to produce ADH
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12
Q

what two things cause ADH release?

A
  1. Increased plasma osmolality detected by hypothalamic osmoreceptors
  2. Angiotensin II
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13
Q

what is the symopathetic nerve supply to the bladder?

A

Hypogastric

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14
Q

what is the parasympathetic nerve supply to the bladder

A

pelvic nerve

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15
Q

what nerve conducts voluntary control to the bladder?

A

Pudendal nerve

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16
Q

where is bicarbonate reabsorbed in the kidneys?

A

mostly in the proximal conveluted tubule

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17
Q

what happens to store urine?

A
  • this is sympathetic
  • the internal urethra sphincter contracts
  • the detrusor muscle is relaxed
  • this is mediated by the hypogastric nerve
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18
Q

what is the volume of the bladder and at what point is the need to void felt?

A

the volume of the bladder is 300-400ml and the need to void is felt at 150ml

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19
Q

Voiding

A
  • This is parasympathetic
  • the internal urethral sphincter relaxes
  • the bladder neck funnels
  • the detrusor contracts
  • pudendal nerve controls voluntary external urethral sphincter
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20
Q

summarise the venous drainage of the thyroid gland

A

Superior and middle veins drain into the internal jugular

Inferior vein drains into the brachiocephalic vein

21
Q

which glucose transporter does insulin cause to mobilise to the cell surface and which one causes insulin to enter the B cells in the islets of langerhans

A
  • Insulin causes GLUT4 to move to plasma membrane
  • Glucose enters the B cells in the islets via GLUT2
22
Q

what are the tubes in the testis called

A

seminiferous tubules

23
Q

when does spermatogenesis begin and how long does the process take to complete?

A

it begins at puberty and it takes 64 days to complete the process

24
Q

describe 6 stages of reproduction following pre-implantation

A
  1. Fertilization (day 1)
    • sperm penetrates zona pellucida and gametes fuse forming a zygote
  2. Cleavage (day 2-3)
    • ooplasm divides into two equal halves and successive cleavages increase cell no.
  3. Compaction (day 4)
    • cells flatten and tight junctions form
  4. Cavitation and differentiation (day 5)
    • fluid filled cavity expands, forming a blastocyst
  5. Expansion (day 5-6)
    • the cavity expand further and the diameter of the blastocyst increases
  6. Hatching (day 6+)
    • due to blastocyst expansion + enzymes the embryo hatches from the zona pellucida
    • this is essential for implantation
25
Q

6 stages of implantation

A
  1. Apposition ~9 days after fertilization
    • The hatched blastocyst orientates via embryonic pole and synchronises with the receptive endometrium
  2. Attachment
    • Endometrial epithelial cells and trophoblastic cells express integrins which connect to one another
  3. Differentiation of trophoblast
    • it becomes a syncitiotrophoblast
  4. Invasion
    • enzymes degrade the basal lamina
  5. Decidual reaction
    • the stromal cells next to the blastocyst differentiate
  6. Maternal recognition
    • secretion of IL-2 prevents antigenic rejection of the embryo
26
Q

Human chorionic gonadotrophin

A

increases from day 7-8 (implantation)

then decreases once the placenta is established

roles: support the corpus luteum, interact with the endometrium and stimulate oestrogen production by the ovaries

27
Q

Oestrogen in pregnancy

A

it is produced by the ovaries throughout pregnancy

roles: to regulate progesterone levels, prepare the uterus for the foetus and to prepare the breasts for feeding

28
Q

Progesterone in pregancy

A

heightened throughout pregnancy

firstly produced by the corpus luteum and then by the placenta

roles: prevents contraction of the uterus, builds up the uterine lining to prevent miscarriage

29
Q

Prolactin

A

increases at the end of pregnancy when oestrogen and progesterone drop

produced by the anterior pituitary (inhibited by dopamine)

roles: production of milk and prevention of ovulation

30
Q

Relaxin

A

High early in pregnancy and then again late in pregancy

produced by the ovary and the placenta

roles: limit uterine activity, soften the cervix and contribute to uterine ripening

31
Q

Oxytocin

A

secreted throughout pregnancy but skyrockets at the end

Produced by the posterior pituitary

roles: uterine contractions, triggers caring reproductive behaviours

32
Q

Prostaglandins

A

PGF2 alpha is the main one

Produced by the uterus

Has a role in initiating the labour by making uterine tissues more receptive to oxytocin

Also produced in response to the baby’s head pushing on the cervix

33
Q

Stages of Labour

A
  • Latant phase
    • Little cervical dilation
  • Active phase
    1. From when stronger contractions start to full dilation
    2. Full dilation > foetal expulsion
    3. Placental expulsion
  • Post-partum phase
34
Q

parturition hormones positive feedback can you draw the diagram?

A
35
Q

Briefly describe spermatogenesis

A
  • much of it occurs in the walls of the seminiferous tubules
  • the spermatogonium is stimulated by testosterone produced by the interstitial leydig cells
  • it differentiates into diploid a primary spermatocyte
  • the primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis I to become two haploid secondary spermatocytes
  • these undergo meiosis II to become 4 haploid spermatids
  • the spermatids are supported by the sertoli cells in the wall of the seminiferous tubule to develop into mature sperm cells
  • this happens as they travel along the seminiferous tubules and epididymus
36
Q

give overall timeline of oogenesis

A
  • a woman’s lifetime supply of primary oocytes are created from oogonia by ~20 weeks gestation
    • this is 7 million but by birth is already reduced to 2m
  • they begin meiosis but are arrested in prophase I for up to 50 years
  • from puberty, one primary oocyte a month completes Meiosis I
  • it will begin meiosis II but is arrested in metaphase II until fertilization
37
Q

briefly summarise oogenesis

A
  • at birth: 2mill primary oocytes (2n) arrested at prophase I
  • these are in primary follicles
  • during menstrual cycle FSH stimulares completion of meiosis I and the formation of secondary oocytes (n) within secondary follicles
  • the secondary oocyte is arrested in metaphase II
  • on day 14 the secondary follicle ruptures and releases the secondary oocyte into the fibriae
  • follicle leftovers remain in the ovary and develop into the corpus luteum
  • meiosis will only complete once there is contact with a sperm
    *
38
Q

oestrogen production by the follicle

A
  • under stimlulation by LH, the theca cells of the follicle turn cholesterol into androgen
  • this androgen is passed to granulosa cells
  • granulosa cells, under the influence of FSH then convert the androgen into oestrogen
39
Q

draw menstrual cycle diagram with sections for:

pituitary hormones

ovarian hormones

endometrium lining

follicle development

A
40
Q

briefly summarise the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle

A
  • GnRH is being produced at increasing levels
  • In first couple of days FSH secretion is stimulated by low oestrogen to rise
  • FSH stimulates development of the follicle
  • Oestrogen at low levels inhibits LH secretion
    • LH remains low despite high GnRH
  • Oestrogen levels begin to rise
    • FSH secretion decreases
  • Oestrogen reaches a conc high enough to stimulate LH secretion
  • Massive spike in LH causes ovulation
41
Q

briefly summarise the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle

A
  • after ovulation follicle turns to the CL which will release:
    • oestrogen - it was always making this
    • inhibin
    • progesterone
  • inhibin stops FSH secretion since we don’t need to stimulate any more follicles
  • oestrogen levels begin to drop
  • progesterone causes the endometrium lining to build up and inhibits GnRH secretion
    • LH and FSH drop
  • as the CL degenerates oestrogen, progesterone and inhibin are no longer being produced
  • endometrium cannot be maintained –> menstruation
  • because progesterone is low, GnRH is high enough (and oestrogen low enough) to allow FSH to be produced and to start the process again.
42
Q

summarise water distribution in the body

A
43
Q

tubuloglomerular feedback

A
  1. macula densa of distal tubule detects decreased NaCl
  2. MD secretes prostaglandins
  3. prostaglandins cause granular cells to secrete renin
44
Q

briefly summarise the synthesis of thyroid hormone

A
  • occurs in follicles: sphere of follicular cells surrounding a core of protein rich colloid
  • lumen contains thyroglobulin produced by follicular cells from tyrosine
  1. circulating iodide (I-) is actively cotransported with Na+ ions across basolateral membranes of follicular cells (‘iodide trapping’)
    • Na pumped out of the cells by Na+/K+ ATPases
  2. iodide is transported into the lumen of the follicle
  3. I- is then converted into atomic iodine by an enzyme called thyroperoxidase (TPO)
  4. atomic iodine can then be bound to thyroglobulin to form T3 or T4
45
Q

overall effects of insulin and subpoints for each

A
  • Decreased liver glucose production
    • less glycogenolysis
    • less gluconeogenesis
  • Decreased use of stores
    • decreased lipolysis
    • decreased ketogenesis
    • decreased muscle catabolism
  • Increased storage of energy
    • Glucose enters cells
    • increased triglyceride formation
    • increased glycogen formation
    • increased muscle metabolism
  • Weird one
    • K+ enters cells
46
Q

can you draw the urea cycle?

A
47
Q

what is the GFR calculation using a marker

A

GFR = Um x urine flow rate / Pm

48
Q

what is henderson hasselbach for blood?

A

pH = 6.1 + log ([HCO3-] / 0.03 x PaCO2)

49
Q

bicarbonare reabsorption in the kidney

A

you can work it out if you just simply remember that H+ is sent into the lumen to collect the HCO3-

EM: (14 decks)

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