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Studied material Flashcards

1
Q

Ideas in 1850

A
  • Miasma
  • Spontaneous Generation
  • 4 humours (blood,yellow bile, black bile, phlegm)
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2
Q

Germ Theory

A
  • 1861 Louis Pasteur
  • Employed to find a way to prevent milk spoiling
  • Discovered micro-organisms and that they could be killed by heating
  • Had little short term effect by 1878
  • Disproved spontaneous generation
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3
Q

Effects of Pasteur

A
  • Limited short term impact
  • Surgery - 20 years later led to Joseph Listers development of antiseptic technique
  • Public Health - 30 years later vaccines could be made and treatment created due to Germ theory in 40 years
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4
Q

Robert Koch

A
  • Born Germany 1843
  • Doctor who read Pasteurs work
  • Rivalry between Pasteur and Koch during Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871)
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5
Q

Pasteur and vaccinations

A
  • 1879 Chicken Cholera vaccine - confirmed Jennas theory
  • 1881 Anthrax vaccine
  • 1882 Rabies Vaccine - treated a 9 year old boy
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6
Q

Koch and Anthrax

A
  • 1872 discovered a method of staining microbes
  • 1876 able to identify specific microbe for Anthrax and published findings
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7
Q

Koch and Bacteriology

A

Koch is “Father of bacteriology” as he found methods of staining Microbes
* 1878 Septiceamia
* 1880 growing cultures - Agar jelly
* 1882 TB

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8
Q

Sylvarson 606

A
  • 1909, discovered by Paul Ehrlich team
  • Treated Syphillis
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9
Q

Marie Curie

A
  1. 1910 - led team on use of radiation for use against cancer
  2. 1911 Nobel Prize, means of measuring radioactivity
  3. Outfitted and drove mobile X-ray machines
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10
Q

Prontosil

A
  • Discovered by Gerhard Domagk
  • Tested on humans 1935 (on Domagks daughter near death)
  • Gained renown when used to treat FDRs son
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11
Q

Penicillin Discovery

A
  • 1928 Alexander Flemming
  • Accidental discovery
  • First Antibiotic (biological killer of bacteria)
  • Flemming did very little with this
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12
Q

Florey and Chain

A
  • Formed research team 1939
  • 1941 tested on humans sucessfully, on a policeman near death
  • Florey and Chain recieved huge amounts of American Goverment Funding
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13
Q

Mass Production of Penicillin

A
  1. 1942, US government invest largely in Penicillin
  2. 1944, Penicillin used on mass on D-Day
  3. 1945, US army uses 2 million doses a month
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14
Q

Abdication of Kaiser

A
  • 9th November 1918
  • Prince Max of Baden announced the abdication
  • 11th November armisitice signed
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15
Q

Reasons for abdication

A

Revolution from above - Ludendorff conviced the Kaiser to hand pver power to a government
Revolution from below - Various Mutinies and unions made it seem a revolution was likely unless Kaiser abdicated

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16
Q

Stab in the back

A
  • Idea that Germany was winning the war and was betrayed by weak Weimar politicians
  • Dolchstoss
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17
Q

Weimar Government features

A
  • 19th Januay 1919 election 82% voted
  • Freedom of speech, religion and equality
  • Head of Government was president, elected every 7 years
  • Split into 18 states each with individual power
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18
Q

Weimar Strengths

A
  • Democracy
  • Proportional representation
  • Strong president
  • Chancellors appointment democratic
  • Federal system
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19
Q

Weimar Weaknesses

A
  • Democracy was different and unpopular
  • Very hard to get a majority
  • Article 48 was open to abuse, overided Germans rights
  • Federal states could rebel against central government
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20
Q

ToV Blame

A

Clause 231 said the war was exclusively Germanies Fault

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21
Q

ToV Reperations

A

Germany had to pay £6.6 billion to Allies

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22
Q

ToV Army

A
  • Limited to 100,000 soldiers
  • No conscription
  • No tanks, air force or submarines
  • Six battleships only
  • Demilitarised the Rhineland
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23
Q

ToV Territory

A

Germany lost land in East Europe (polish corridor, estonia)
Lost all of its colonies

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24
Q

ToV Overrall

A

Germany lost:
* 13% of its land
* 12.5% of its population
* 50% of iron and steel industry

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25
Q

Sparticist uprising

A
  • 5th January 1919
  • Communist groups
  • Government were too weak to handle it
  • Created the Freikorps to handle the Spartcists
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26
Q

Kapp Putsch

A
  • March 1920
  • Freikorp led by Kapp marched on Berlin to overthrow government
  • Army refused to help government
  • Left wing organised a strike that crippled the Putsch
  • Weimar once again too weak
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27
Q

French Occupation of Ruhr

A
  • Germany paid £50 Million in 1922 but could not pay more
  • French occupied Ruhr to take the wealth themselves
  • German workers strike
  • Government prints money to pay striking workers
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28
Q

Hyperinflation

A
  • 1919-1923 German income was 1/4 of what it needed to be
  • Middle classes, savers, poor, pensioners hit hard
  • Farmers, debters, bussinessmen did well
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29
Q

Discontent of Peasants (pre 1905)

A
  • 1861 serfs freed but with debt
  • Aristocracy made up 1% but had 25% of land
  • 1890’s famines (word famine banned from press)
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30
Q

Discontent of National Minorities

A
  • Russification - policy of making non russians act like them
  • 56% of population was not ethnically Russian
  • Baltic Germans, Armenians, Ukrainians
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31
Q

Failures of Nicholas II

A
  • Not interested in ruling
  • Not intelligent
  • “Nicholas was not fit to run a post office” a cabinet minister
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32
Q

Police state (Pre 1905)

A
  • Censorship - no public opposition to Tsar
  • Exile common punishment
  • Okhrana punished revolutionaries
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33
Q

Social Democrats

A
  • Founded 1898
  • Split in two in 1903
  • Bolsheviks (Wanted a small, secret party that could take over at the correct time)
  • Mensheviks (Believed in an open party that woukd grow until it could revolt)
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34
Q

1905 Revolution
Short Term Triggers

A

Russo Japanese War
* 1904
* Battle of Tsushima May 1904 (Russian fleet crushed, 5,000 dead)
* Unexpected loss

Bloody Sunday
* 22nd January 1905
* 100 protestors killed
* Led by father Gapon
* Led to strikes nationally

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35
Q

Potemkin Mutiny

A
  • 14th June 1905
  • 800 sailors killed officers
  • Ship landed in Odessa, where troops killed 2,000 striking workers
  • Failed to spread to the rest of the Black Fleet
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36
Q

1905 general rebellions

A
  • Peasant rebellions (destroyed 3,000 manors)
  • Strikes in cities (January 1905, 400,000 workers on strike)
  • Summer 1905 harvest failed again
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37
Q

October Manifesto

A
  • 17th October
  • Created the Duma
  • Freedom of speech, assembly and worship
  • Allowed political parties
  • Legalised trade unions
  • However did not improve living conditions
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38
Q

Stolypins repression

A
  • Elected PM in 1906
  • 60,000 opponents to regime hung (“Stolypins necktie”)
  • Forced to carry internal passports
  • Increased Okhrana threat
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39
Q

Fundamental Laws

A
  • 1906
  • Gave Nicholas huge control over Dumas
  • Could dissolve Dumas
  • Tsar could pass any laws while Duma not in session
  • Tsar could veto any Duma legislation
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40
Q

Stolypins Land Reform
Goals

A
  • Attempt to modernise farming and create “Kulak” peasants who owned land
  • Land Bank to help own land
  • End old fashioned methods of strip farming in Russia
  • “Wager on the strong”
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41
Q

Stolypins Land Reforms
Success

A
  • 3.5 million peasants moved to Siberia
  • But only 10% left communes by 1914
  • Kulaks were hated
  • Those who left Mir = “stolypins seperators”
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42
Q

Lena Goldfields strike

A
  • 1912
  • Striking Workers in Siberia over being told to eat rotten horse meat, 14 hour day, poor conditions
  • Clashed with troops led to 200 deaths
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43
Q

KF of Dumas

Success

A
  • Stolypin worked with third Duma to pass Land Reforms
  • 1908 Law on universal education
  • Attempts to modernise Orthodox church
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44
Q

KF of Dumas

Failures

A
  • Third Duma electoral system changed so only 1/6 of peasants could vote
  • Dissolved very quickly (e.g 1st Duma in 10 weeks)
  • No real reform
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45
Q

Trostky

Background

A
  • Jewish
  • The favourite to suceed Lenin
  • Head of Red Army and orchestrator of October Revolution
  • Became a Bolshevik 1917 (very late)
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46
Q

Stalin

Background

A
  • Born in poverty in Georgia
  • Rude and agressive
  • Clever with allies and running government
  • Wanted to focus on socialism in USSR
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47
Q

Kamenev

Background

A
  • Active since 1905
  • Major contributor to doctrine
  • Opposed April Theses
  • Wanted to end the NEP
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48
Q

Zinoviev

Background

A
  • Active since 1903
  • Good orator but not intellectual
  • Opposed October revolution
  • Wanted to end NEP
  • Highly unpopular
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49
Q

Bukharin

A
  • Joined 1906
  • Very popular
  • Lenin called him the “golden boy”
  • Supported the NEP
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50
Q

Stalin Strengths

A
  • Had important positions
  • 1922 General Secretary (He could appoint his own supporters as officials)
  • Access to 26,000 personal files
  • Lenin Enrolment 1923-25 helped him
  • 500,000 workers who were loyal to Stalin for work
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51
Q

Stalins wins

A
  • Tricked Trostsky over Lenins funeral
  • Lenins Testament hidden
  • Popular ideas (relatively central)
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52
Q

Defeat of Trotsky

A
  • 1924, Zinoviev and Kamenev join Stalin against Trotsky
  • Destroyed Trotskys reputation
  • 1925 Stalin lost his job as Commissar for War, no longer a threat
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53
Q

Defeat of Kamenev and Zinoviev

A
  • 1924 -1926 all three shared power
  • 1927 they both allied with Trotsky for the United Opposition
  • Stalin allied with Bukharin for media support
  • This was rejected and lost them all respect
  • 1927 they were expelled from the party
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54
Q

Defeat of Bukharin

A
  • Stalin attacked the NEP and its supporters
  • Began Grain Requisitioning again
  • Ensured Bukharin lost government jobs
  • Bukharin not politically skilled so this was easy
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55
Q

Lenins Testament

A
  • Written 1922/23
  • Hidden from public
  • Stalin - “I propose the comrades find a way to remove him”, “too rude”
  • Trotsky - “most capable”, “too arrogant”
  • Kamenev and Zinoviev - “opposed me when I tried to set the date for the revolution in October 1917.”
  • Bukharin - “golden boy”
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56
Q

‘Sanitary conditions of the Labouring Population’

A
  • Published 1842
  • James Chadwick
  • Highlighted the terrible conditions under which poor people were living
  • Suggested this was limiting economic growth
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57
Q

Broad Street Pump

A
  • 1854, John Snow
  • Proved Cholera was a water-borne disease
  • Deaths from an outbreak were centralised around this pump
  • When the handle was removed the deaths stopped
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58
Q

Causes of liberal reform

A

Demands of empire
* Men too weak to fight in war
* Boer War highlighted
* some areas up to 69%
Politics
* Rivalry with Conservatives and Labour pushed liberals further left
* Labour 2 seats 1900, 29 by 1906

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59
Q

Cause of reform: Demands of Empire

A
  • Britain needed strong army
  • Concern over health of troops
  • In Boer War up to 69% of soldiers unfit to fight
  • Boer war 1899
  • Committee on Physical Deterioration
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60
Q

Cause of reform: Politics

A
  • Rise of socialism in Britain
  • Conservatives promies changes
  • 1900 Labour Party formed
  • Labour, 2 seats in 1900, 29 by 1906
  • Threat led to Liberals being even further left leaning
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61
Q

2 Liberal Reforms for Children

A
  1. 1908 Children and young people act. illegal to abuse kids, commitees set up to ensure welfare, different childrens prisons, child care regulated (Difficult to enforce, conditions still harsh)
  2. 1912 School clinics, Medical treatment for Children free in schools (Standard of care varied)
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62
Q

Liberal Reform for Elderly

A

1908 Old Age Pensions act, Over 70s received 5s a week. Claimed by 650,000 in first year. (raised taxes, rich were in uproar)

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63
Q

2 Liberal reforms for Workers

A

National Insurance Act 1911
1. Part 1, sickness benefit of 10s for 13 weeks. 16 million in scheme. (Decreased after 13 weeks off)
2. Part 2, Unemployed workers got 7s 6d a week. 2.5 million workers recieved.(only for 15 weeks)

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64
Q

1848 Public Health Act

A
  • Permissive, Board of Health encouraged action but was not mandatory
  • Allowed towns to: establish a Board of Health, employ a medical officer, organise rubbish and sewage removal
  • Disbanded in 1878
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65
Q

1848 Public Health Act limitations

A
  • Permissive
  • Terms were temporary, Board of Health ended in 1854
  • Very high cost of improving conditions locally
  • Chadwick was difficult to work with
  • Local tax increases not popular
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66
Q

1875 Public Health Act

A

Authorities had to:
* provide clean water
* dispose of sewage
* ensure only safe food was sold

Must search for dangers to public health “nuisances” and take action to fix it.

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67
Q

1876 River Pollution Prevention Act

A

Made it illegal for companies to dump waste , including chemicals into rivers

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68
Q

1875 Artisan Dwelling Act

A

Gave local governments the power to demolish slum housing.

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69
Q

Great Stink

A
  • 1858
  • Heat wave caused excrement in the Thames to dry on shores
  • Caused incredibly bad smell, near parliament
  • Showed that Thames was not a safe waste disposal
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70
Q

1858 Sewers act

A
  • Parliament passed an act to build a sewer system
  • Bazalgette assigned to build it
  • £3million assigned
  • Oval shaped sewers made of brick
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71
Q

Building of the Sewers

A
  • Most finished by 1865
  • Entirely finished in 1875, for £6.5 million
  • 2000 Km
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72
Q

Beveridge report

A

1942 Published Will Beveridge
Wanted to address 5 problems:
1. Want
2. Disease
3. Ignorance
4. Squalor
5. Idleness

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73
Q

1946 National Health Act

A
  • NHS Bill
  • Doctors would work for the government rather than privately
  • They would be paid a salary rather than per patient
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74
Q

Impact of NHS

A

1948-1949:
1. 187 Million prescriptions
2. 5.25 Million glasses
3. 8.5 Million treated at dentists

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75
Q

Causes of NHS

A

WW2:
1. Troop quality
2. Emergency Medical Service 1938
3. Evacuations 3.5 mil(Country doctors realised poor standard of care in cities)

Beveridge report:
(See own card)

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76
Q

Economic effects of WW1

A

Loss of Trade:
* Areas captured included economic areas e.g mining regions of poland
* Germany blocked Russias access to Europe
* All imports had to go through Vladivostok
Lack of workers in factories:
* 15 million men fought in war
* 1915, over 500 factories had to close

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77
Q

Social impact of WW1

A

Food shortages in cities
* Not enough peasants to farm
* Railway was inefficient
* Meat price rose 300%
* Flour price rose 200%
Conditions in the countryside
* Less food due to lack of farmers
* Army seized horses for transport
* Large amounts of food was sent to army

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78
Q

Military impact WW1

A

Early defeats
* August 1914 Battle of Tannenberg destruction of 2nd Army
* End of 1915 Russia lost 2 million men
Nicholas in command
* Sept 1915 Nicholas took personal control of the Army
* Ministers advised against this due to lack of military experience
* Accepted personal blame for losses

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79
Q

Political impact of WW1

A

Dumas
* Fourth Duma suspended in August 1914
* 1915 progressive bloc formed
Running the Country
* Domestic policy left to Tsarina and Rasputin
* Rasputin was bribed to appoint ministers
* So many changes disorganisation followed

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80
Q

Influence of Rasputin

A

Pre-1914
* Could allegedly heal Alexie haemophilia
* Rumours around affair with Tsarina
* PM stolypin was acquiring evidence against him, killed 1911
Influence during WW1
* Influence over domestic policy after 1915
* Assassinated by aristocrats in 1917

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81
Q

Events in Petrograd

A

Strikes and demonstrations
* Jan - 140k workers go on strike
* Feb - gov announced bread would be rationed from 1 March
* 250k people marched
Army Mutiny
* Feb - soldiers forced to fire on protestors
* Soldiers of Pavlovsky regiment refused orders
* Full scale mutiny - captured weapons stores and stole 40k rifles

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82
Q

Abdication of Tsar

A

Attempted travel to Petrograd
* Ordered General Ludovich to take troops to capital
* Nicholas decided to travel to Petrograd
* Not allowed to enter as believed his troops would join mutiny
Abdication
* Senior officers and Duma told Nicholas to abdicate
* Agreed to allow his brother Michael to become Tsar
* Strikers hated the idea of a new Tsar
* Michael declined offer ending 300 years of Romanov rule

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83
Q

Army Mutiny

A

Causes
* Tsar based in Mogilev
* 25th Feb ordered police and soldiers to end strikes
* 26th Feb soldiers opened fire and killed 50 people
Events
* 150k soldiers mutinied
* Pavlovsky regiment refused orders
* Stole 40k rifles from stor

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84
Q

Changes 1920-1922

A
  • Aims reorganised and published in 25 points
  • Htiler ousted Drexler and became leader in 1921
  • Owned their own Newspaper
85
Q

Munich Putsch Causes

A
  • Anger at Weimar for ToV, civil unrest
  • Bavaria hostile to Weimar Government
  • Nazi strength (20,000 supporters)
86
Q

Munich Putsch Events

A
  • 8-9th November 1923
  • Took control of Beerhall and attempted to convert Bavarian leaders to their cause
  • Bavarian leaders escaped
  • Nazis marched on Berlin and defeated by police and Bavarian soldiers
  • 14 Nazis Dead, Hitler dislocated shoulder arrested the next day
87
Q

Munich Putsch Effects

A
  • Hitler used trial for publicity
  • Sentenced to 5 years, served 9 months
  • Hitler wrote “Mein Kampff” in captivity
88
Q

Re-org of Nazi party

A
  • Nazi Party relaunched in 1925
  • New divisions for different sections in Germany
  • SA restructured, SS established
  • Goebells increased propaganda
89
Q

Bruning as Chancellor

A
  • Elected after 1932 elections (even though Nazis were biggest at 37%)
  • Bruning had to use Article 48 to pass measures
  • Tried to ban the SA/SS and gained more enemies in the right
  • Known as the “Hunger Chancellor”
  • Sacked in May 1932 due to lack of support
90
Q

Von Papen as Chancellor

A
  • Von Papen replaced Bruning
  • Consistently beat by Nazis but Hindenbrug denied Hitler being chancellor
  • Sacked in December 1932
91
Q

Hitler as Chancellor

A
  • 30th Januray 1933
  • Von Papen told Hindenburg he could control Hitler
  • Von Papen was desperate for power
92
Q

Wall Street Crash

A
  • October 1929 share prices in NY fell rapidly
  • Between 1929 and 1932 industry in America reduced 45%
93
Q

Great Depression effect on Germany

A
  • Impact on Banking - American loans stopped which led to a financial crisis
  • Impact on industry - Americans no longer purchased German goods, 1932 industry was 58% of 1928
  • Impact on unemployment - 1929 1.5 million unemployed, 1933 6 million unemployed
94
Q

Appeal of Hitler

A
  • ‘Make Germany Strong’ and ‘Smash the chains of Versailles’
  • Wealthy business owners like Krupp’s and Siemens gave money to the Nazis
  • In 1932, Hitler stood for president under slogans like ‘Freedom and Bread’ and Goebbels waged a furious campaign of propaganda
95
Q

Role of SA

A
  • In 1930, the SA had 400,000 members
  • At rallies they used lights and symbols of power
  • They disrupted meetings of political opponents
  • In the 1930 and 1932 elections they used violence to threaten the opposition and threatened voters
96
Q

PG positives

A
  • They ended capital punishment
  • They ended press censorship
  • They released all political prisoners
  • They disbanded the Okhrana
97
Q

PG negatives (overview)

A
  • Sharing power with Petrograd Soviet
  • Continuing with war
  • No clear aims
98
Q

Sharing power with Petrograd Soviet

PG negatives

A
  • March-October 1917 “dual power”
  • PS more popular with Russians (elected, Order 1, control of army)
  • PS not blamed for mistakes
  • Lenin had majority by September
99
Q

Continuing with war

PG negatives

A
  • June Offensive (disaster)
  • War was highly unpopular
  • PG felt it was too big to decide themselves
  • PG wanted to appease Britain and France
100
Q

April Theses

A

Points:
* An immediate end to the war as it was a capitalist war
* Nationalisation of industry
* Land for peasants - nationalisation of land
* All power in Russia must be given to the Soviets
* End all cooperation with the Provisional Government and any party helping them

Simple slogan: “Peace, bread, land”
Lenin arrived in Petrograd 3rd April

101
Q

Reasons for growth of Bolshevik support

A
  • Made use of problems (Food shortage, war, delayed elections, land)
  • Propaganda (widespread by June)
  • Military (10,000 red guards)
102
Q

July Days

A

Reasons:
* June Offensive
* Food shortages
* Bolshevik Propaganda

Bolsheviks eventually joined the riots
5th July Kerensky sent troops to disperse
Important Bolsheviks (Trotsky) arrested
Lenin flees to Finland

103
Q

Kornilov Revolt

A
  • September 1917
  • Kornilov wanted martial law and military dictatorship
  • Bolsheviks defended city with 25,000 men
  • Trotsky sent agitators to make troops desert
104
Q

Kornilov revolt effects

A
  • Start of 1917 Bolsheviks 24,000 members
  • Octover 1917 Bolsheviks 340,000 members
  • Bolshevils heroes
  • Army collapsed
  • 40,000 red guards now armed due to defense from revolt
105
Q

Bolshevik Takeover Stages

A
  1. Lenin returns to Russia
  2. Military revolution commitee
  3. Kerensky tries to stop Bolsheviks
  4. Bolsheviks seize control
  5. All Russian congress of Soviets
106
Q

Step 1

Lenin Returns to Russia

A
  • Mid-october Lenin returns in disguise
  • Convinced Bolsheviks to revolt
  • Helped by Trotsky
107
Q

Step 2

Military Revolution Commitee

A
  • Kerensky tries to send all Bolshevik units out of Petrograd
  • In response PS set up MRC
  • 21st October Petrograd regiment pledged allegiance to MRC
108
Q

Step 3

Kerensky tries to stop Bolsheviks

A
  • Kerensky ordered crackdown (no newspaper, no river crossings)
  • Trotsky responded by ordering seizure of roads, army HQ and post office by the MRC
109
Q

Step 4

Bolsheviks take control

A
  • Night of 25-26th October
  • Seized state bank and winter palace
  • Propaganda shows as struggle but was really peaceful
  • Only 5 red guards hurt
110
Q

Step 5

All Russian Congress of Soviets

A
  • October meeting heard of revolution
  • Almost all left in protest until only Bolsheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries left
  • Trotsky said the leavers “belonged to the dustbin of history”
111
Q

Bolshevik Strengths

A
  • Key individuals (Lenin and Trotsky)
  • Did not join the PG, not blamed for problems
  • Weapons and military support
112
Q

Surgery in 1850

A

3 main issues:
* Pain - all surgery very painful and had to be very fast
* Blood - large numbers of patients died from blood loss
* Infection - No knowledge of sterlisation or germs

113
Q

Anaesthetics

Use of Ether

A
  • Ether used in 1847 by Robert Liston
  • John Snow later used it
    Limitations - High Flammable, irritated lungs, unknown length of effects
114
Q

Anaesthetics

Chloroform

A
  • 1847 James Simpson discovered
  • 1848 John Snow invents Chloroform inhaler
  • 1853 John Snow used on Queen Victoria
    Limitations - Christian opposition, untested
    Longer surgeries meant more blood loss and infection
115
Q

Anaesthetics

Other Anaesthetics

A
  • 1884 Cocaine (addictive)
  • 1898 Heroine (addictive)
  • 1905 Novocaine (less addictive)
116
Q

Antiseptic

Semmelweis hand washing

A
  1. Semmelweis encouraged doctors to wash hands after handling corpses before delivering babies. Decreased infection in child birth. Semmelweis seen as crazy and later incarcirated.
117
Q

Antiseptic

Carbolic Acid

A
  • First used 1865, Lister
  • Added onto surgical wounds
  • Noticed more survival in compound fractures and other air-exposed injuries
  • 1866-70 Listers death rate fell from 45% to 15%
118
Q

Limitations to Antiseptic

A
  • Methods were not reproduced correctly, so thought to be false
  • Opposition to Germ theory
  • Carbolic Acid irritated surgeons skin and was expensive
119
Q

Antiseptic

Aseptic surgery

A
  • 1878 Koch Steam Steriliser
  • By 1887 all instruments had to be sterilised before use
  • Ensured no germs ever entered the surgery
120
Q

Bloodloss

Lister and Catgut

A
  • 1881
  • Lister discovered Catgut ligatures
  • These prevented blood loss but later dissolved in the body
  • Could be soaked in Carbolic Acid
121
Q

Blood loss

Blood Groups

A
  • 1901
  • Landsteiner discovers blood groups
  • Makes it possible to give succesful blood transfusions
122
Q

WW1

Blood

A
  • 1915 (Sodium Citrate) 1916 (Glucose citrate) discovered that anticoagulant meant blood could be stored
  • First non-direct transfusion in 1914 (Dr Robertson)
  • First blood bank on Western front in 1917
123
Q

WW1

X-rays

A
  • X-rays discovered 1895 by Rontgen
  • Marie Curie payed for mobile X ray machines with her own money
  • More machines in Field Hospitals
  • Limitations, could not detect clothing in wounds and required patients to be still
124
Q

WW1

Infection

A
  • A-septic conditions were impossible
  • Cut away infection and bathe in saline was preffered method
  • This was the Carrel-Dakin method
  • Injuries often still led to amputation
125
Q

WW1

Thomas Splint

A
  • Held femur fractures open to prevent compounding of break
  • 1914 80% of femur fractures died, 1916 80% survived
126
Q

WW1

Skin Grafts

A
  • Shrapnel lead to terrible face injuries
  • Harold Gillies assigned to solve issue of facial injuries
  • Specific hospital in Sidcup, treated 2,000 patients after the Somme
  • Facial reconstruction became a key part of rehabilitation
127
Q

1920s to 1940s

Blood transfusions

A
  • Soviet Union set up national blood banks in 1930s
  • Dr Charles Drew discovered blood could be seperated into blood and plasma 1941
128
Q

1920s to 1940s

Plastic surgery

A
  • 1916, Vladmir Filatov developed first Skin Grafts
  • 1920 Gillies and Kilner published Plastic Surgery of the face
129
Q

1920s to 1940s

Burns

A
  • McIndoe made RAF surgeon in 1938
  • McIndoe operated highly experimentally on burned pilots, ‘guinea pig club’ (649 members at end of war)
  • Got East Grinstead residents involved with visits to normalise the patients
130
Q

Women in 1850

A

Women could not be doctors, women could be nurses
* Doctors had to go to Uni (closed to women)
* Doctors had to belong to a college (all closed to women)

131
Q

Florence Nightingale

Improvements at Scitari

A
  • Arrived November 1854
  • Spring 1855 death rate had fallen from 60% to 2.2%
  • Deaths pealed in January 1855 with 3,168 that month
132
Q

Florence Nightingale

Improvements in England

A
  • 1859 Wrote 2 books called “Advice on Nursing”
  • 1860 Established ‘Nightingalge training school for nurses’:
    1. Nurses should have practical training
    2. Nurses should live in a moral, disciplined home
133
Q

Elizabeth Garret

Path to Doctorate

A
  • Attended classes for men before being banned from Middlesex
  • Joined society for Apothecaries in 1865
  • Went to Paris University to gain Medical degree
134
Q

Elizabeth Garret

New Hospital for Women

A
  • Founded 1872 by Garret
  • Staffed entirely by women
  • 1873 Garret joined BMA, was the last woman for 19 years as they voted against further women being allowed
135
Q

1876 Medical act

A

Allowed women to enter medicine, numbers remained low anyway

136
Q

WW1

QAIMNS

A
  • Founded in 1902 during boer war
  • 300 women in 1914
  • 10,000 members by 1918
  • 200 died in WW1
137
Q

WW1

FANY

A
  • Launched in 1907
  • Specialists in First Aid
138
Q

WW1

Women Doctors

A
  • Women were not permitted at the front
  • Dr Louisa Garret and Dr Murray led an all womens war hospital in London
  • Lack of staff at home meant more women qualified, 610 by 1911 and 1500 by 1921
139
Q

WW2

QAIMNS and FANY

A

QAIMNS:
* Given military ranks
* Served in a range of Countries in high danger
FANY:
* Attached to the 24,000 poles that escaped Poland
* Served as radio operators

140
Q

WW2

Women Doctors

A
  • Less impactful than WW1
  • Femal medical students 2000 in 1939 to 2900 in 1946
  • Women worked closer to battle than in WW1
141
Q

Reichstag Fire

A
  • 27th February 1933
  • Marianus Van der Lubbe charged
  • 4,000 communists arrested
  • Communists lost 19 seats
  • Passed ‘Decree for Protection of People and State’
142
Q

March 1933 Election

A
  • Recruited 50,000 SA members
  • Violence led to 70 deaths
  • Threats at polling stations to encourage correct voting
143
Q

Enabling Act

A
  • Passed 444 votes to 94
  • Applied for 4 years but renewed in 1937
  • Hitler could pass laws without the Reichstag
  • Reichstag only met 12 more times till 1945
144
Q

Threat of Rohm

A
  • SA had 2 million members
  • Rohm had more socialist views
  • SA wanted to replace the army
145
Q

Night of the long knives

A
  • 29th June 1934 SS killed SA leaders
  • 90 SA leaders killed
  • SS became more powerful, SA less powerful
146
Q

Hitler as Fuhrer

A
  • Hindenbrug died, Hitler combined Chancellor and President
  • 2nd August 1934 Army swore oath specifically to Hitler
  • Named himself Fuhrer, supreme leader
147
Q

Nazi Leadership Schools

A
  • NAPOLAs - Boys aged 10-18 educated in leaderhsip, 39 schools in 1939
  • Adolf Hitler Schools - Elite schools for 12-18 year olds for military leadership, only 11 of them
148
Q

Nazi Youth Movements

A
  • 1936 all eligible youth must be in the Hitler youth
  • 8 million members by 1939
149
Q

Nazi policies on women

A
  • Kinder,Kirche,Kuche
  • From 1933 loans available to married couples
  • Large focus on women being homemakers and mothers
  • Contraception and abortion banned
150
Q

Nazis and Catholic Church

A
  • Concordat - 1933, no cross involvement between church and state, church allowed to run youth groups and schools
  • Breaking - Hitler removed catholic newspapers and images, prompting a rebuke by the pope in 1937
  • Nazis responded with a huge crackdown on the church (1941 Catholic Press closed)
151
Q

Nazis and protestant church

A
  • Nazis created ReichChurch in 1933
  • Confessional church made in 1934 to rival Nazi churches but quickly shut down
  • Dietrich Bonhoeffer hung 1945
  • By 1939 only 5% of Germans believed in God
152
Q

Economic plans

A

New plan - Reduce imports and increase exports, spent 1 billion marks on public schemes
Four Year Plan - From 1936, aimed to make Germany self sufficient in raw resources, 1939 Germany still imported 1/3

153
Q

Invisible unemployment

A
  • Nazis manipulated figures to make it seem employment reduced
  • Women were not included
  • Jews not included
  • National Labour Service organised work for unemployed men and they were no longer counted as unemployed
154
Q

Effects of Nazi economic policy

A
  • pre 1936 economy focused on increasing employment
  • Four Year plan aimed to prepare for war
  • People were not better off
  • Germany had to start rationing immediatetly in Sep 1939
  • Unemployment down and industry up
155
Q

Groups effects by Nazi economic policy

A
  • Big bussiness benefitted most
  • profits went from 1.3 Bil in 1928 to 5 Bil in 1939
  • Middle classes, workers and Farmers saw little improvement
156
Q

Propaganda Key messages

A
  1. The supremacy of the Aryan race and the inferiority of the Jews and other races
  2. The tremendous work being done by the Nazis to deal with the evils of Communism
  3. The different roles of men and women in society and the importance of family
  4. The fact that all citizens had a duty to suffer for the good of the nations
157
Q

Radio

Propaganda

A
  • Goebbels “spiritual weapon of the totalitarian state”
  • 1939, 70% of Germans had a Radio
  • Programmes would inclue Hitlers speeches, Nazi history and German music
158
Q

1936 Olympics

Propaganda

A
  • Germany won the most medals
  • Huge stadium to hold 100,000
  • Showed Germany and Aryans as a strong people
  • However, Jesse Owens a black American won 4 gold medals
159
Q

Decree for Protection of People and State

A
  • The police could ban meetings, search houses and imprison without trial
  • The death penalty could be used for certain crimes
  • Concentration camps like Dachau were set up
160
Q

Persecution of Jews

A
  • 1935 Nuremberg Laws (Jews no longer citizens, could not marry Germans)
  • November 1938 Kristallnacht (91 killed, 191 synagogues destroyed)
  • 1941 “Final solution”
161
Q

Gestapo

A
  • 1933 Goerring set up
  • Huge numbers of spies among regular people
  • Had the power to search houses and arrest with no reason
  • 1942, 30,000 officers
162
Q

Concentration camps

A
  • 200,000 imprisoned for opposition
  • The Law on Malicious Gossip made it illegal to tell even jokes about Hitler.
  • Run by Deaths Head section of SS
163
Q

SS under Himmler

A
  • Himmler appointed leader 1929
  • 400k members in 1934
  • 240k members in 1939 (due to reductions)
  • Members personally vetted by Himmler as “Aryan”
  • Most ruthless and loyal Nazis
164
Q

Arts/Music

Censorship

A
  • All artists had to join Reich Chamber of Commerce
  • Jazz was banned for being “black”
  • Art had to feature Aryans
165
Q

Literature

Censorship

A
  • Ministry of propaganda made a list of banned books
  • Gestapo would search for and burn any non-Nazi literature
  • Millions of books by Jewish or Communist authors were burned
166
Q

Propaganda

Education

A
  • Geography taught lebensraum (living room)
  • Focus on health for strong Volksgemeinschaft
  • 1933 textbooks rewritten to enforce Nazi beliefs
  • 50% decrease in higher education students
167
Q

Reasons for 5YP’s

Fear of invasion

A
  • A strong economy + heavy industry for armaments needed if invaded
  • Churchill: “strangling Bolshevism in its cradle”
  • In 1927:
  • The British government accused the USSR of spreading revolutionary propaganda
  • In China, the Communists were attacked by their political opponents resulting in a civil war.
  • Pytor Voykov, Soviet diplomat, was assassinated in Poland.
168
Q

Reasons for 5YP’s

Ideological reasons

A
  • Communism was appealing for workers BUT USSR mostly peasants
  • More workers = more support for communism
  • Get ride of NEPmen, stalin called them “enemies of the party”
  • Better living conditions could increase dwindling support
169
Q

First 5YP (Overrall)

A
  • 1928, Gosplan
  • Very ambitious goals
  • in 1929 Stalin decided goals were to be met by 1931
170
Q

First 5YP (Positives)

A
  • Industrial workers doubled
  • 1500 new enterprises
  • Electricity output trebled (3x)
  • Advisers: Ford experts caused 140k cars made in 1932
  • Entire cities founded around industrial complexs
  • New roads, canals, railways
171
Q

First 5YP (Negatives)

A
  • Unrealistic targets were not met
  • Lack of raw materials
  • Lack of skilled workers
  • Decline in living conditions
172
Q

Second 5YP (Overrall)

A
  • 1933
  • More concerned with improving efficiency and quality
  • Focus on heavy industry and communications
173
Q

Second 5YP (Positives)

A
  • Three Good Years (1934-6).
  • Greater emphasis on consumer industries (food processing).
  • Heavy industry grew because of complexes set up during the first plan.
  • Dnieper Dam produced electricity.
  • By 1937, USSR was basically self-sufficient.
174
Q

Second 5YP (Negatives)

A
  • Consumer goods were still lagging.
  • Limited growth of oil production.
  • No improvement in living standards
175
Q

Third 5YP (Overrall)

A
  • 1938
  • Focus on armaments
  • Halted by German invasion 1941
176
Q

Third FYP (Positives)

A
  • 1/3 of government spending on defence
  • 9 new aircraft factories
  • Heavy industry and armaments grew rapidly
177
Q

Third FYP (Negatives)

A
  • Hindered by purges (Gosplan officials and experienced managers)
  • Consumer industries, steel and oil production lagged
178
Q

Stakhanovites

A
  • Alexis Stakhanov, moved 102 tonnes of coal in one 6 hour shift
  • Head of a propaganda campaign to encourage hard work
  • Workers that exceeded targets got better housing, rations and called “Heroes of Socialist Labour”
  • 25% became Stakhanovites
  • Negatives: Workers hated pressure, Stakhanovites attacked, Stakhanovite “Pushy and Selfish person”
179
Q

Magnitogorsk

A
  • Founded 1743 but irrelevant until 1929
  • 750k people moved there
  • Average worker stayed for only 82 days
  • 40k political prisoners used
  • Closed to westerners in 1937
180
Q

Reasons for collectivisation

Economic

A
  • Grain procurement crisis: 1927-28 government could not buy surplus grain = rationing in cities
  • Inefficient, old fashioned, Kulak-run farms
  • Unable to produce surplus to support economic growth
181
Q

Reasons for collectivisation

Ideological

A
  • Collectivisation extended socialism into the country
  • Eliminated Kulaks
  • Closer to ending NEP which was capitalist
  • 1928-29 bread+meat rationed in cities (bad for ideology)
182
Q

Reasons for collectivisation

Political reasons

A
  • Stalin aware food shortages caused Tsars downfall
  • Collectivisation would give Stalin upper hand against Bukharin
183
Q

Impact of collectivisation (Overrall)

A
  • Started Winter 1929-30
  • 24 mil peasants in 240,000 kolkhoz
  • Very negative response from peasants (nearly civil war)
  • 1929-34 half of russian villages collectivised
  • 1929 “liquidate Kulak classes” = 2 mil sent to Siberia and thousands killed
184
Q

Kolkhozes

A

Sovkhoz: Larger state farm where peasants paid wages
Kolkhoz: Collective farms
* 1940 there were 240,000
* 50-100 families
* After 1935 peasants given small area of private land

185
Q

MTS stations

A
  • By 1940 one for every 40 farms
  • MTS given complete control of farms until abolished in 1953
  • Hated by peasants
186
Q

Collectivisation

Positive impacts

A
  • 1937 90% of farmland collectivised
  • Grain output 80% higher than 1913
  • 1934 end of rationing food and bread
  • 19m peasants moved to cities supplied lots of labour
187
Q

Collectivisation

Negative impacts

A
  • Much resistance, particularly Kulaks
  • in 1930, 14 million cattle slaughtered
  • Livestock figure did not return to 1928 number till 1940
  • By 1934 3mil Kulaks sent to labour camos
  • Great Famine 1932-33
188
Q

Collectivisation

Great famine

A
  • 4-5m dead
  • Ukraine, hardest hit = “Breadbasket of Europe”
  • Propaganda against canibalism, still 2500 people convicted of it
  • People ate worms, bark, mice and humans
  • Stalin made this much worse by refusing aid and grain seizures - deliberate?
189
Q

Collectivisation

Economic impact

A
  • 1928 to 1933 cattle numbers halved
  • Fall in grain (73.3m tonnes to 67.6m tonnes)
  • Greater use of machinery in 1930s
  • Allowed for industrialisation
190
Q

Collectivisation

Social and Political impacts

A

Social
* Heavy resistance
* Extended government control
Political
* Removal of non-government influences ( e.g village priests)
* Removal of capitalist classes (15m Kulaks)
* Abolition of Mir

191
Q

Reasons for purges

Opposition to Stalin

A
  • Opposition was growing due to harsh methods
  • Stalins own wife committed suicide in Nov 1932
  • 1932, Ryutin circulated 200 page document calling Stalin “evil genius”
192
Q

Reasons for purges

Murder of Kirov

A
  • Loyal supporter, but Stalin saw him as a rival
  • 1st December 1934 Leonid Nikolayev shot Kirov
  • Stalin claimed a plot to overthrow him and said K+Z “Shed the blood of Kirov”
193
Q

KF of Purges

Use of NKVD

A
  • 1934 Cheka became NKVD
  • Stalin used them to arrest opponents, torture and threaten
  • NKVD themselves purged in 1938, leader Yezhov killed in Feb 1940 after torture
194
Q

KF of purges

Gulags

A
  • Common threat used to terrify people into obedience
  • 12 million died in them
  • 1920s and 30s very full of Kulaks
  • One camp used 250k to build the Belomor canal
195
Q

Show trials

Trial of the 16

A
  • 1936
  • Based on Zinoviev and Kamenev
  • Chief prosecutor was Vyshinksy
  • Said to “shoot them like wild dogs”
  • K died with honour, Z begged for his life
196
Q

Show trials

Trial of the 17

A
  • 1937
  • Focused on Trotskys allies
  • Charges: killing Kirov, delaying 5YPs, overthrowing gov
  • 13 killed, 4 sent to gulags
197
Q

Show trials

Trial of 21

A
  • 1938
  • Focused on Bukharin
  • B tried to show how ridiculous it was but eventually pleaded guilty
  • Vyshinky called him “foul smelling heap of human garbage”
  • B died cursing Stalin
198
Q

Purge of Wider Party

A
  • 70% of 1934 General Commitee executed or imprisoned
  • Overral, 1 mil members purge
199
Q

Purge of Armed Forces

A
  • Stalin killed Tukhachevsky + 7 other generals in 1937
  • 1939 all Navy admirals shot
  • 3 of 5 red army Marshalls shot
  • 25,000 Red Army officers shot
200
Q

Purge of the People

A
  • July 1937 stalin ordered removal of “all anti-soviet elements”
  • 250k people identified as state enemies
  • 18 million sent to labour camps where 13 million died
201
Q

Impact of purges

Political

A
  • Removed all opposition
  • 1930’s Stalin admired as “dictator of people”
202
Q

Impact of purges

Weakened Sovet Union

A
  • 25% of mine managers purged, drop in production
  • Hitler’s invasion in 1941 made lack of experienced officers a problem
  • 1939-40 Finland war causes 200k casualties
203
Q

Propaganda

Cult of Stalin

A
  • Started December 1929
  • Showed Stalin as “father of the nation”
  • Posters, paintings and parades
  • Rewrote history to make himself seem second in importance only to Lenin
  • After WW2 promoted himself to “Generalissimo”
204
Q

Propaganda

Official Culture

A
  • Arts heavily censored to follow “Socialist Realism”
  • Only Soviet films and books allowed
  • Novels: Cement (Fyodor Glakov) 1925
  • Movies: Chapaev, 1934, told of a peasant hero of civil war
  • Doctoring of photographs
205
Q

Censorship

A
  • 1936, 30 films and 10 plays banned
  • Poet Madelstam performed a poem about Stalin called “The Kremlin Mountaineer”
  • Arrested and died in gulag
206
Q

1936 constitution

A
  • Set up 2 chamber assembly: Supreme Soviet
  • Meant to guarantee rights (jobs, speech, voting)
  • Rights could be taken away for “national security”
  • Stalin still Chairman and General Secretary so had total power
207
Q

Control of education

A
  • Stricter in 1920s as Stalin wanted a good workforce
  • 1939 the majority could read
  • Political Youth Groups: Octobrists (8-10), Pioneers (10-16)
208
Q

Revision of history

A
  • Stories of Old Communists purged
  • Trostsky was removed and Stalin made more important in stories of revolution
  • 1938 Stalin ordered creation of:
    1. Short Biography of Stalin
    2. Short Course of History of All Union Communist Party

GCSE History (30 decks)

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