Step 1: Conceptualize the Study Flashcards
What is a research problem?
An enigmatic (puzzling), perplexing, or troubling condition/situation that a researcher wants to address through disciplined inquiry
When developing a research problem what is it important to consider before moving too far into the process regarding whether it can/should be done
Significance to nursing
Feasibility: Is it capable of being done?
o I.e. enough sample, money, or expertise needed to perform the study
How is a research topic identified?
o A specific problem area
o Generally, an area of interest to the researcher
o May be a difference in procedure noted between units or facilities
What is a problem statement?
A statement articulating the research problem and indicating the need for a study
An aspect of the research topic that is troubling or thought provoking
o Doesn’t have to be “bad”, it can just be a concern over a deficit in knowledge
o It is not a question, just a declared statement
Criteria:
o Feasibility
o Significance
o Researchability
(Fucking Serious Research)
What are the criteria for the problem statement?
MEMORY: Fucking Serious Research
Feasibility
o Adequate time and resources to do the study
Significance
o Is it significant to our discipline? Maybe the population at large
Researchability
o Is it possible to research what we are interested in?
Describe researchability, one of the criteria for a problem statement?
o Is it possible to research what we are interested in?
Describe feasibility, one of the criteria for a problem statement?
o Adequate time and resources to do the study
Describe significance, one of the criteria for a problem statement?
o Is it significant to our discipline? Maybe the population at large
What does a problem statement look like in a paper?
May just be one sentence
Generally located in the background or literature review section
Sometimes not easy to find in articles
1-2 paragraph discussion
May not have specific sentences for the statement
May have to read a few paragraphs to determine what the problem is
Sometimes located in general statements
What is this an example of:
“The general problem that this article addresses is the continuing prevalence of poor communication during the diagnostic window of time within the cancer experience”
Problem statement
What is this an example of:
“Given the teratogenic effects of some medications traditionally used to treat depressive disorders, there is the need to explore possible alternatives for women with depression associated with pregnancy”
Problem statement
Describe a purpose statement. What are the components of it?
Statement of purpose
o Researcher’s summary of the overall study
2-3 sentences
Components
o Study’s target
o Action verb
Describe the purpose statement of a quantitative article
Identifies key study variables
Identifies possible relationships among variables
Indicates the population of interest
Suggests, through use of verbs, the nature of the inquiry
o I.e. to test, to compare, to evaluate
What is this an example of:
The purpose of this descriptive study was to describe the compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, and burnout among undergraduate nursing students at a tertiary nursing institution
Purpose statement of a quantitative article
What is this an example of:
The purpose of this meta-ethnography was to explore nurses’ experience with telephone triage and advice within the primary-care sector and to understand the factors that facilitate or impede their decision-making process
Purpose statement of a qualitative article
Describe the purpose statement of a qualitative article
Identifies central phenomenon
Indicates the research design
o i.e. phenomenology or ethnography
Indicates the group, community, setting of interest
Suggests, through use of verbs, the nature of the inquiry
o I.e. to describe, to discover, to explore
What type of study would have the words to test, compare, or evaluate in the purpose statement?
Quantitative study
What type of study would have the words to describe, discover, or explore in the purpose statement?
Qualitative study
What is the purpose of a literature review during the first step of the research process?
o Become familiar with the current state of knowledge on the topic
o Identify gaps in the literature
o Develop or refine research questions
o Identify strengths and weaknesses of studies through critical appraisal
How does a literature review help us to define the gap?
Determine what is known and what needs to be known
Problem statement helps to define this
Identifies
What questions are unanswered?
What unresolved problems exist?
Name some databases commonly used in literature reviews?
CINAHL, MEDLINE, ERIC, APA Psycinfo, SocioINDEX
What is the process of critically reading a paper during the literature review?
MEMORY: Prior to Comprehension, Always Skim
Preliminary
Skim the article to become familiar with content
Comprehensive
Understand the purpose or intent of the research
Analysis
Understand the parts/components of the research study
Synthesis
Understand the whole article and each step of the research process in a study
Describe an empirical research article
o Based on observed and measured phenomenon
o Derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief
o Can be qualitative or quantitative
What type of article is based on observed and measured phenomenon and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than a theory/belief?
Empirical research article
Describe primary sources identified during a literature review
o Written by person who developed the theory or conducted the research
o Articles and books by original authors
Describe secondary sources identified during a literature review
o Scholarly material written by someone other than the individual who conducted the research or developed the theory
o Provide a view of the phenomenon from another’s perspective
What research articles are written by the person who developed the theory or conducted the research?
Primary sources
What research articles are based on the scholarly material of another individual who conducted the research or developed the theory?
Secondary sources
What is the introductory summary of a paper called?
Abstract
What is an abstract?
An introductory summary of about 100-200 words
Brief description of the study placed at the beginning of the article
o A brief summary of the article or report usually prepared by the authors
o Includes descriptive information about the study including a brief summary of results
What questions does an abstract answer?
o What were the research questions?
o What methods were used to address these questions?
o What were the findings?
o What are the implications for nursing practice?
What is contained in a good abstract?
o Mentions the problem being addressed
o States the central purpose or focus
o Briefly states information about the sample, population, or subjects
o Reviews key results that relate to the study
What are the 2 formats of an abstract?
Traditional style
Single paragraph, 200 words
New style
More detailed with specific headings and multiple sections
What is a researchable question? What does it help us determine? Why is it so important to a project to have a good research question?
- The specific query(ies) the researcher wants to answer in addressing the research problem
- A specific, clearly defined question we are going to answer through research
- Provides answers that explain, describe, identify, substantiate, predict, or qualify
- Relevant to current issues
- Success of a study depends on the ability to translate the problem into a research question
- Determines scope and direction of the study and that the study components stay focused
- All elements in a research plan depend on the question (s)
In what ways does a well formulated research question guide the researcher?
Determining the objectives of the study
Research aims or objectives
Planning the correct methodology
Collecting and analyzing the data
Making inferences
What are the research aims/objectives?
The specific accomplishments to be achieved by conducting the study
What are important elements of research question development?
MEMORY - element of OAR
Originality
o What is already known about this topic?
o Which debate does it add to?
Applicability - Relevance
o What is the importance or relevance of the topic for stakeholders?
Rigour
o Is the question aligned with the methods?
o Do the research tools generate appropriate data to answer the question?
What question do we ask ourself to ensure that our research question has the element of relevance?
o What is the importance or relevance of the topic for stakeholders?
What question do we ask ourself to ensure that our research question has the element of originality?
o What is already known about this topic?
o Which debate does it add to?
What question do we ask ourself to ensure that our research question has the element of rigour?
o Is the question aligned with the methods?
o Do the research tools generate appropriate data to answer the question?
What are the research question requirements?
MEMORY: a girl requires the FINER things in life and research
Feasible
o Practicality of the study
o I.e. money, time, large enough sample, enough participants, etc.
Interesting
o Captivates attention for researchers, stakeholders, the public etc.
Novel
o Brings fresh insights to body of knowledge
Ethical
o Can be conducted to safeguard human dignity
Relevant
o Findings will have practical as well as theoretical implications
What are the basic characteristics of a research question?
MEMORY: research questions need to be SAID
Simplicity - precise and specific
Action oriented
Inquiry - questions, not statements
Directions for action provided
What are the components of the research question?
Active stem - the use of what or why
Topic of interest
What are the different research question types?
MEMORY: Questions Explore Connections
Quasi-experimental/Experimental
* For quantitative only
* Must be two variables that specify a cause and effect
Exploratory/Descriptive
* Can be for either qualitative or quantitative
* One variable/phenomenon and one population topic
Correlational/Comparative
* For quantitative only
* Minimum of two variables
* Looking for the relationship between the variables
What research question type is this:
What are the characteristics of successful dieters?
Why? What does it tell us about the type of study?
Exploratory/descriptive
Only 1 variable and 1 population
Tells us this can be a qualitative or quantitative study
What research question type is this:
What are the characteristics of patients with hip fractures?
Why? What does it tell us about the type of study?
Exploratory/descriptive
Only 1 variable and 1 population
Tells us this can be a qualitative or quantitative study
What research question type is this:
What are the body positions into which nurses place low-birth weight intubated infants?
Why? What does it tell us about the type of study?
Exploratory/descriptive
Only 1 variable and 1 population
Tells us this can be a qualitative or quantitative study
What research question type is this:
What is the relationship between dietary intake and birth weight?
Why? What does it tell us about the type of study?
Correlational/Comparative
Minimum of 2 variables and looking for a relationship between them
Tells us this has to be a quantitative study
What research question type is this:
What is the relationship between gender and hip fractures in elderly people?
Why? What does it tell us about the type of study?
Correlational/Comparative
Minimum of 2 variables and looking for a relationship between them
Tells us this has to be a quantitative study
What research question type is this:
What is the relationship between preoperative teaching and postoperative pain?
Why? What does it tell us about the type of study?
Correlational/Comparative
Minimum of 2 variables and looking for a relationship between them
Tells us this has to be a quantitative study
What research question type is this:
What is the relationship between body positions and heart rate in the intubated, low-birth weight infant?
Why? What does it tell us about the type of study?
Correlational/Comparative
Minimum of 2 variables and looking for a relationship between them
Tells us this has to be a quantitative study
What research question type is this:
Why does preoperative teaching decrease postoperative anxiety?
Why? What does it tell us about the type of study?
Quasi-experimental/Experimental
Specifies a cause and effect between 2 variables
Tells us this has to be a quantitative study
What research question type is this:
Why does increase assertiveness in nursing lead to lower nosocomial infection rates?
Why? What does it tell us about the type of study?
Quasi-experimental/Experimental
Specifies a cause and effect between 2 variables
Tells us this has to be a quantitative study
What research question type is this:
Why does supine body positioning decrease heart rate in the intubated low birth weight infant?
Why? What does it tell us about the type of study?
Quasi-experimental/Experimental
Specifies a cause and effect between 2 variables
Tells us this has to be a quantitative study
What are the steps to formulating a research question?
- Identify the broad topic of interest
- Identify the research problem and write down the problem statement
- Describe a broad research question that will solve the research problem or address the problem statement
- Review the relevant research
- Clearly define/refine the research question for purposes of study
What might help guide the researcher in formulating the research question in certain types of studies?
PICO questions
What types of studies are PICO questions effective for?
randomized trials
prospective correlation studies
What are the elements of a PICO question?
- P – problem and/or participants
- I – intervention
- C – comparison or control
- O – outcomes
Identify the elements of a PICO question in the following example:
Does prophylactic antibiotic therapy prevent preterm birth in women who are at a higher risk of preterm birth?
- P – pregnant women at risk of preterm birth
- I – antibiotic therapy
- C – no antibiotic therapy or placebo
- O – preterm birth
What type of PICO format is best used for a qualitative study and what are the elements of that format?
PICo Format
* P – population
* I – interest
* C – context
A PICO question might have a T or D added to it. What do each of these letters represent in your research question?
T - timeframe
D - data
What is a hypothesis?
Used in quantitative research
* Researcher’s predictions about relationships among variables
* Conjectural statements about the relationships between two or more variables
* Specific queries the researcher wants to answer in addressing the research problem
What are the criteria for a hypothesis?
Written in a declarative sentence
Written in present tense
Must contain
o The population
o The variables
o The expected outcome (relationship between/among variables)
Reflect the problem statement, purpose statement, or research question
Empirically testable
What are the types or categories of hypotheses?
Simple - predicts relationship between two variables
Complex - predicts relationship between three or more variables
Non-directional - predicts a relationship between variables exists but no direction
Direction - predicts the relationship and the direction of that relationship (positive/negative)
Null - Expresses absence of a relationship, used for testing
Alternative - is the research hypothesis
What is a simple hypothesis?
o States the anticipated relationship (causal or associative) between two variables
What is a complex hypothesis?
o Predicts the relationship between 3 or more variables
What is a directional hypothesis?
o State an assumption or prediction that a relationship exists between variables
o Does not state whether the effect is positive or negative
o Highlighted by verbs such as influence, alter, change or effect
o X is related to Y
o Changing one variable has an effect on another variable
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
o More specific
o Predicts relationship and direction of relationship
o Changes or effects described as positive or negative
o As X increases, Y increases (positive) OR as X increases, Y decreases (negative)
What is a null hypothesis?
Expresses the absence of a relationship
Statistical hypothesis
It is used for statistical testing and interpretation
Rejected if analysis of the data indicates a relationship between the variables
Not always clearly stated in a research report
May be implied as it is the opposite of the research hypothesis (alternative hypothesis)
Can be simple or complex, associative or causal (non-directional or directional)
What is an alternative hypothesis?
Is the research hypothesis
Used for statistical analysis
States the actual prediction of a relationship between variables
What type of hypothesis is this:
Guided imagery will have a positive effect on patient mood
Simple and directional
What type of hypothesis is this:
Guided imagery will have a positive effect on patient mood, sense of humour, and perceived health status
Complex and directional
What type of hypothesis is this:
Guided imagery will have an effect on patient mood
Simple and non-directional
What type of hypothesis is this:
Guided imagery will NOT affect mood in individuals with chronic pain
Null
What is the concept of a research study?
Abstractions based on observations
Quantitative has
Conceptual - Theoretical definition
Operational - How the concept will be measured
What is a construct of a research study?
o Abstract or concept that is invented by researchers
o Based on inferences from human behaviour or human traits
What is a theory in a research study?
o Abstract generalization that presents a systematic explanation about relationships among phenomena
What are variables in a research study?
Building blocks of quantitative research process
Something that varies
o An attribute of a person or object that varies
o Examples include HR, temp, age, etc.
Variables and their relationships to each other are the bases for research problem and the purpose of the proposed research study
Can be manipulated or controlled by the researcher
What are the building blocks of the quantitative research process?
Variables
What types of variables need to be taken into consideration when designing a quantitative research project?
Independent variable (IV)
* Answers: What do I change?
* The presumed cause or influencing variable
* Experimental or treatment variable
* Stimulus activity is manipulated or varied by the researcher
Dependent variable (DV)
* Answers: What do I observe?
* Variable the researcher is interested in
* Response or outcome (may be a behaviour)
* Changes are presumed to be caused by the independent variable
Extraneous/Confounding Variables
* Confounding - Interference caused by another variable that may strongly influence the study
* Extraneous - Any variable other than the IV and DV; have a weaker influence on the study
* An unmeasured variable that influences both the IV and DV
* Exist in all studies
* Can limit a study’s usefulness
* Can affect the measurement of study variables and the relationship between them
* Classified as recognized/unrecognized, and controlled/uncontrolled
Control Variables
* Kept the same in each trial
Moderator Variables
* Variables that can increase or decrease the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
* Often identified when repeating the experiment or coming at it from a new angle
What is the variable in a quantitative study that is the one I’m going to change?
Independent variable (IV)
What variable in a quantitative study is altered by the researcher?
Independent variable (IV)
What variable in a quantitative study is the outcome that we are looking for?
Dependent variable (DV)
Describe the independent variable of the quantitative research study?
- Answers: What do I change?
- The presumed cause or influencing variable
- Experimental or treatment variable
- Stimulus activity is manipulated or varied by the researcher
Describe the dependent variable of the quantitative research study?
- Answers: What do I observe?
- Variable the researcher is interested in
- Response or outcome (may be a behaviour)
- Changes are presumed to be caused by the independent variable
Describe the extraneous and confounding variables of the quantitative research study?
Confounding
o Interference caused by another variable
o May strongly influence the study
Extraneous
o Any variable other than the IV and DV
o Weaker influence on the study
An unmeasured variable that influences both the IV and DV
Exist in all studies
Can limit a study’s usefulness
Can affect the measurement of study variables and the relationship between them
Classified as recognized/unrecognized, and controlled/uncontrolled
Describe the control variables of the quantitative research study?
Variables that are kept the same in each trial
Describe the moderator variables of the quantitative research study?
- Variables that can increase or decrease the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
- Often identified when repeating the experiment or coming at it from a new angle
What is the variable in a quantitative study that is the presumed cause of the effect that we are testing for?
Independent variable (IV)
What is the variable in a quantitative study that is presumed to be changed by the independent variable?
Dependent variable (DV)
What is the variable in a quantitative study that interferes with the study and may in fact strongly influence the results?
Confounding variable
What is the variable in a quantitative study that is any variable other than the IV and DV?
Extraneous
What is the variable in a quantitative study that exists in all studies but at the same time may limit the study’s usefulness?
Confounding and extraneous variables
What are the classifications of confounding and extraneous variables in a quantitative research study?
Recognized/unrecognized
Controlled/uncontrolled
What is the variable in a quantitative study that is kept the same in each trial?
Control variables
What is the variable in a quantitative study that might increase or decrease the relationship between the IV and DV?
Moderator variables
What are midrange theories?
- Provide a link from the broad, abstract theory underpinning the research to observable behaviour in everyday contexts
- Focus on concrete practical applications
