Spotlight Topics Flashcards
Outline the main concepts of conformity (including acceptance, compliance etc.)
- Conformity: change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure (conformity)
- Compliance: publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request even if privately disagreeing (compliance)
- Obedience: Acting in accord with a direct order or command (obedience)
Acceptance: conformity that involves acting and believing in accord with social pressure (acceptance)
The key is whether your behaviour and beliefs would be the same when apart from the group: conformity
- compliance is an outward conformity as a result of implicit social influence
- obedience is a result of explicit social influence
- acceptance is an inward conformity as a result of persuasion
Outline and compare the main classical studies about conformity: methods, findings, conclusions, and their impact
Autokinetic Study (Sherif, 1936):
Method: Participants estimated the movement of a stationary light in a dark room alone, then in groups.
Finding: Estimates converged, showing influence of group norms on individual perceptions.
Conclusion: Group norms shape individual beliefs and judgments.
Impact: Highlighted the power of social influence in forming shared perceptions.
Line Agreement Study (Asch, 1951):
Method: Participants judged which of three lines matched a standard line, sometimes with confederates giving incorrect answers.
Finding: 75% conformed at least once to incorrect group answers.
Conclusion: Social pressure can lead to conformity, even against one’s own perception.
Impact: Demonstrated the influence of social pressure on conformity.
Milgram Obedience Study (1963):
Method: Participants (teachers) delivered electric shocks to a learner when instructed by an authority figure.
Finding: 65% obeyed fully, delivering the maximum shocks.
Conclusion: People are highly obedient to authority, even against their own moral beliefs.
Impact: Showed the power of authority in influencing behavior.
How can we explain prejudice?
- The Prejudiced Personality (Adorno)
- hostility towards one group coexists with hostility towards other minorities - Social Dominance Theory
- once group is in a dominant position, the show support for the systems that keep them high up - Social Identity Approach
- when intergroup comparison threatens the ingroups positive distinctness
- group norms become internalied
How can we explain discrimination?
In-group/Out-group Bias: People favor their own group and view others as different or inferior.
Social Identity Theory: Discrimination arises from the desire to enhance self-image by favoring in-group members over out-group members.
Stereotypes: Generalized beliefs about groups lead to prejudice, which can justify discriminatory behavior.
Realistic Conflict Theory: Discrimination often arises from competition over SCARE RESOURCES, creating conflict between groups.
Minimal Group Behaviour: doesn’t need to be conflict/resources - preference will always be for the ingroup
Social Categorization: Dividing people into groups simplifies the social world, but can lead to biases and discrimination.
Normative Influence: People may conform to social norms that support discriminatory attitudes or behaviors
How can we explain intergroup conflict?
- Realistic Conflict Theory (Sherif)
- competition for scarce resources leads to intergroup conflict
- Robbers Cave experiment (compeittion produced hostility, shared goals produced cooperation) - Categorisation
- people can favour their ingroup even when there is no reward for doing so (Minimal Group) - Social Comparison
- making their own groups meaningful (distinctness and positive esteem, reducing uncertainty)
- strive to make their own group appear favourable
What is social identity theory
Social Identity Theory (SIT) was developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s. The theory focuses on how individuals identify with groups and how this affects their behavior, attitudes, and perceptions of others.
Key Concepts:
- Social Identity: An individual’s sense of who they are based on their group memberships.
-In-Group and Out-Group: People categorize themselves and others into “in-groups” (groups they belong to) and “out-groups” (groups they do not belong to).
- Social Comparison: Individuals compare their in-group to out-groups to boost their self-esteem. They view their own group more positively and the out-group more negatively.
What is social dominance orientation
SDO is the belief that some social groups are inherently superior to others,
–> leading to a desire to maintain hierarchy and dominance.
People high in SDO are more likely to SUPPORT discriminatory practices and inequality, viewing lower-status groups as inferior.
–> Prejudice arises from the belief that maintaining social hierarchies benefits one’s own group.
–> This can also be the motivation for people from higher-status groups to seek to maintain the status quo and resistance to change.
What is realistic conflict theory
- Realistic Conflict Theory (Sherif, 1958)
○ Competition for scarce resources leads to intergroup conflict.
○ Robbers Cave Experiment – if competition over resources was the basis for intergroup conflict, could it be reduced by bringing the groups together to work co-operatively for shared resources?
○ When competition between groups began, hostility arose.
○ As the groups were brought together through the introduction of superordinate goals requiring collective work, prejudice ceased.
–> had to work cooperatively to complete the task
What is self-categorisation theory
Self-Categorization Theory (SCT) (Turner et al., 1987):
SCT explains prejudice and discrimination as a result of the process of social categorization, where individuals categorize themselves and others into groups.
–> When people identify strongly with their group (in-group), they tend to view out-group members as different and inferior, leading to prejudice.
–> This process helps maintain a sense of belonging and enhances self-esteem by distinguishing “US” from “THEM.”
–> Prejudice arises when people emphasize their group identity over individual differences.
What is authoritarian personality?
The Authoritarian Personality theory (Adorno et al., 1950) suggests that individuals with an authoritarian personality are more likely to hold RIGID, conventional beliefs, exhibit obedience to authority, and show HOSTILITY toward out-groups.
In terms of group formation and social identity, the Authoritarian Personality (Adorno et al., 1950) explains that individuals with authoritarian tendencies are drawn to rigid in-group identities and reject out-groups.
–> They emphasize strict social roles, authority, and conformity, leading to the formation of highly cohesive in-groups.
–> This can enhance the individual’s social identity, where MAINTAINING POWER and order becomes central, often through the exclusion or discrimination of out-groups seen as threatening or inferior.
What are the benefits and requirements for the contact hypothesis
- Contact Hypothesis
○ Might putting two conflicting individuals or groups into close contact enable them to know and like each other? à Mostly yes (~90% of studies support contact hypothesis): increased contact predicted decreased prejudice.
○ However, Allport (1954) stated that contact should be done under a series of ‘optimal conditions’.
○ Based on the idea that prejudice comes from ignorance about the other group
Contact - According to Allport (1954):
1. Contact must be frequent and prolonged.
2. Contact must be with stereotypical members of the group.
3. Contact must be made with a genuine aspiration to improve relations.
4. Contact must occur between individuals of equal status.
5. Contact must be free from competition.
6. Contact must be supported by formal structures (e.g. education, government policy).
7. Contact must be organised around the achievement of superordinate goals.
Critique Le Bon’s crowd theory and suggest how it promoted modern crowd psychology
Critique of Le Bon’s Crowd Theory:
1. Simplistic and Reductionist: Focused on emotional and irrational behavior in crowds, ignoring social structures and diversity.
2. Lack of Empirical Support: His claims were not rigorously tested, based more on anecdotal observations.
3. Overgeneralization: Underestimated the role of leadership, norms, and group identity.
4. Lacks context
5 Doesn’t suggest there is diversity within a crowd
Promotion of Modern Crowd Psychology:
elements including: SIT, conformity, group polarisation, online crowds, social media etc.
–> Emergence of Social Identity Theory: Scholars like Henri Tajfel expanded on Le Bon’s ideas, emphasizing group identities and social categorization in shaping crowd behavior.
–> Studies of Leadership and Norms: Research on roles of leadership, communication, and social influence reflects ideas from Le Bon, but with a more nuanced approach.
–> Empirical Research on Online Crowds: Modern crowd psychology explores behavior in digital environments, focusing on social media influence and group polarization, areas not directly addressed by Le Bon.
