Biology, Culture, and Gender Flashcards
Biological Aspects of Gender: Chromosomes !
45 of the 46 human chromosomes (22 out of the 23 pairs) are the same across females and males
- DNA is composed of AGCT DNA strands, these are in genes - that are responsible for our characteristics
- Human body has 23 pairs of chromosomes
–> All M/F biological differences are from the XX v XY 23rd chromosome pair
Biological Aspects of Gender: Epigenetics !
Definition: MODIFICATIONS to genes that DON’T PERMANENTLY CHANGE the genes.
–> Alters whether they SHOW UP or not (doesn’t alter the gene itself)
Epigenetic factors are both biological and environmental!
–> eg. cigarette smoke can influence epigenetics (introducing chemical compounds (e.g., nicotine, carcinogens) that modify the structure of DNA or histones,)
Epigenetics and Sex !
Emerging evidence suggests SEX DIFFERENCES in at least FOUR related epigenetic parameters:
(1) DNA methylation patterns
(2) Methyl transferase
(3) Methyl-binding proteins
(4) Corepressor proteins
–> all of which can contribute to lasting differences in the brain and behaviour
Results suggest that epigenetics may be involved in the cause of gender incongruence
Biological Aspects of Gender: Hormones (include: unisex embryos)
Hormones: CHEMICALS that are produced and send messages around our body
UNISEX EMBRYOS
–> When embryos are first developing, they are the same (have the same sex organ)
–> Babies have the same sex organ until EIGHT weeks old.
–> Sexual differentiation - when the foetus PRODUCES HORMONES THAT TRIGGER EXTERNAL SEX DEVELOPMENT
Wolffian duct (male): XY
–> Genital tubercle enlarges to form the penis.
–> The male testes form high in the abdomen then descend to scrotum near term
Mullerian duct (female): XX
–> Grows to form ovary and uterus, genital tubercle enlarges and forms the clitoris
Foetal Development: more complicated than originally assumed
–> it’s now understood that sex differentiation is influenced by genes, particularly the SRY GENE on the Y CHROMOSOME. In males, the SRY gene triggers the development of testes and male characteristics, while females lack this gene, leading to the development of ovaries and female traits
What are the four layers of sex before birth?
- Chromosomal Sex
- Differentiated Fetal Gonadal Sex (testes or ovaries)
- Fetal Hormonal Sex (do gonads produce androgen or oestrogen)
- Genital Sex (vaginal or penis)
Outline some DSDs (Chromosomal)
Kleinfelter Syndrome (XXY)
–> small testes and impaired fertility
–> reduced body hair
–> concerns; breast cancer
Turner Syndrome (X_)
–> no puberty
–> impaired fertility
–> concerns; cardiac defects
Outline AIS DSD (Hormonal)
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
1. Chromosomes are XY
2. Gonads: Testes
3. Fetal Hormone: Testosterone
BUT
4. Genitals: clitoris, vagina, labia
Body does not recognise male hormones despite them being produced
–> ‘female’ at birth, typically become ‘confused’ during puberty, no period etc. - tests will confirm that biologically male
Definitions
1. Sex
2. Gender
3. Gender Role
4. Intersex
- Sex – the BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS, including hormones, genes and physiology, that determines whether an individual is understood to be male or female
- Intersex – the appearance of sex characteristics, including hormones, chromosomes, and sexual organs, in an individual which DO NOT CONFORM to traditional definitions of ‘male’ or ‘female’
- Gender – the CHARACTERISTICS WHETHER BIOLOGICALLY OR SOCIALLY INFLUENCED, by which people define male and female
- Gender role – the SET OF SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS based on gender stereotypes of how a person should act, think and feel based on their actual or perceived se
How do cultural aspects influence gender (include: observable signals) !
This is why we say that gender is a PERFORMANCE - we SIGNAL our masculinity and femininity
* OBSERVABLE signals (dress, physical spaces, manners) - makeup, piercings, hair length etc.
* VALUES (why we behave and think in the way we do)
* Underlying ASSUMPTIONS (what we assume about the world and relationships within it)
Observable Signals
* Dress
* Physical Space - bodies taking up size/space,
What are gender roles - including the Bem Sex Role Inventory
Gender Role: A gender role refers to the social expectations for behaviors and attitudes based on one’s gender.
Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI): Developed by Sandra Bem, it measures masculine and feminine traits (eg. forceful, tender, warm), categorizing people into four groups:
Masculine: High on masculine traits.
Feminine: High on feminine traits.
Androgynous: High on both masculine and feminine traits.
Undifferentiated: Low on both masculine and feminine traits.
The BSRI highlights how people can exhibit traits from both genders.
–> tricky scale: 1970s, people’s perceptions have now changed
What do evolutionary psychologists say?
Any distinction between nature and nurture, biological and cultural, is meaningless and redundant – evolutionary psychologists
–> evolutionary psychologists: nature and nurture being completely intertwined?
How can both biology and culture influence gender (example: eye colour and PKU)
Condition called PKU (genetic) - cannot process certain elements of really common foods
- as these children got older = become more disabled (due to being exposed to these chemicals that poisoned them)
- INCLUDING: eye colour getting lighter and LIGHTER towards blue
- genetic: body has condition called PKU
- social: control environment so that not consuming chemical = less of reaction
At what levels does culture influence biology in gender?
- Environmental selection (cultural influences) affects Biological development at the species level and the individual level.
–> And the environment provides cues that activate biological adaptations at the proximal level.
SPECIES level
- eg. Humans developed big brains (by eating certain things etc.)
INDIVIDUAL level
- eg. Epigenetic factors (exposure to second-hand smoke in the womb)
PROXIMAL level - little daily things
- eg. The hormones that flow through your body when you see a snake
Outline confirmation bias in gender research
Theoretical Frameworks: Researchers often use dominant gender theories (e.g., social constructionist or biological determinist) that confirm traditional gender norms.
Measurement Tools: Gender-specific tools and scales may be biased, focusing on traits that align with stereotypical gender roles (e.g., aggression or empathy).
Publication Practices: Studies emphasizing gender differences are more likely to be published, while those showing similarities or equality are overlooked.
Research Questions and Hypotheses: Researchers may frame questions or hypotheses based on expected gender differences, leading to selective focus on confirming those differences.
Sampling Bias: Over-reliance on convenient or traditional samples (e.g., college students, cisgender participants) may exclude diverse groups, distorting findings.
Focus on Binary Categories: Research often overlooks non-binary and transgender identities, reinforcing a limited view of gender.
Outline structural gender inequality
Structural Gender Inequality: Refers to the systemic and institutionalized disparities between men and women (or other gender groups) in access to resources, opportunities, and power.
Economic Disparities: Women often face wage gaps, limited access to higher-paying jobs, and underrepresentation in leadership positions.
–> see also: Glass cliff (female leaders in crisis) Glass elevator (fast-track promotion of men to leadership)
Educational Inequality: Women and marginalized genders may have less ACCESS to quality education and fewer opportunities for higher education.
Political Inequality: Women are UNDERREPRESENTED in political leadership roles and decision-making processes.
Cultural Norms and Expectations: Societal expectations about gender roles reinforce differences in household responsibilities and caregiving.
