Prejudice, Intergroup Relations and Conflict Flashcards
Define:
1. Prejudice
2. Discrimination
3. Intergroup Relations
4. Racism
5. Sexism
Prejudice
–> A PRECONCEIVED NEGATIVE JUDGEMENT of a group and its individual members
O Has to be preconceived - has to be coming from STEREOTYPES
O NEGATIVE - prejudice is not positive judgement
O Has to be BASED FROM GROUP MEMBERSHIP (if it’s not then it’s just a dislike)
O Prejudice person may behave in a discriminatory manner
Intergroup Relations
–> When two or more GROUPS (or their members) INTERACT
Discrimination
–> UNJUSTIFIED NEGATIVE BEHAVIOUR towards a group or its member (about the BEHAVIOUR)
Racism
(1) an individual’s PREJUDICE attitudes and DISCRIMINATORY behaviour towards people of a given RACE,
or
(2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race
–> may not be intentionally prejudice or discriminatory - the system is faulty
Sexism
(1) an individual’s PREJUDICIAL attitudes and DISCRIMINATORY behaviour towards people of a given GENDER,
or
(2) INSTITUTIONAL practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given gender
Explanations for Prejudice: The Prejudiced Personality (Adorno et al., 1950) !
–> Hostility towards ONE GROUP often coexisted with hostility TOWARDS LOTS OF MINORITIES (lots of hostility)
–> AUTHORITARIAN personality or right-wing authoritarianism: a personality that is disposed to favour OBEDIENCE to authority and INTOLERANCE TO OUTGROUPS and those of lower status
1) Intolerance to weakness
2) Punitive attitudes
3) Submissive respect for ingroup authorities
Explanations for Prejudice: Social Dominance Theory (Pratto et al., 1994) !
- How people RESPOND to the social hierarchy DEPENDS on their social DOMINANCE orientation - a MOTIVATION to have one’s group dominate other social groups
–> once in a dominant position, they show support for systems that keep them high up (RESISTANT to change)
–> positive CORRELATION between dominance and prejudice- This motivation results in prejudice and discrimination.
- This can also be the motivation for people from higher-status groups to seek to maintain the status quo and resistance to change.
Explanations for Prejudice: Social Identity Approach (Tajfel and Turner, 1979) !
- Stereotypes – a simplified representation of social groups – have a strong link with prejudice.
- Social identification –> INTERNALISING group NORMS –> stereotypes about others
- However, group identification does not necessarily lead to outgroup derogation.
Prejudice occurs when INTERGROUP COMPARISON threatens the ingroup’s positive distinctiveness/ESTEEM
*All about positive differentiation - when we compare ourselves, sometimes ends up with no or negative difference - we see we are not that meaningfully different*
Outline the language of prejudice
1. Discursive Psychology
2. Ideology of Prejudice
3. The ‘taboo’ of prejudice
- Discursive Psychology and Prejudice
- Categorisation as a discursive process: —-> Discursive psychology argues that social groups, their meanings, and CATEGORISATIONS are produced in LANGUAGE.
- Instead of inner cognitive motives of prejudice, they examine the expression of prejudice in language as prejudice itself.
- The Ideology of Prejudice
- Michael Billig (1985) challenges the cognitive EQUILLIBRIUM of prejudice and bigotry.
- For instance, Nazi Germany’s stereotypes of Jews as parasites who deserve to be killed, are not comparable with UoE students’ stereotypes about the University of Plymouth.
–> says that they cannot be the same behaviour
–> we need to look at IDEOLOGY in language
Ideology: set of beliefs that are proposed by social class
- The “TABOO” of prejudice
* Old Racism – explicit, blatant forms and practices of racism
* New Racism – implicit, subtle, often disguised forms and practices of racism
–> Subtle and Implicit Racism
What are the types of racism?
- symbolic (express prejudice indirectly)
- ambivalent (experience conflicting feelings towards racial groups)
- modern (see racial groups as over demanding)
- aversive (believe in fairness and equality but still have hidden negative feelings or biases toward certain racial groups)
What is implicit prejudice
Implicit prejudice refers to unconscious biases or negative attitudes toward certain groups, which can influence actions without conscious awareness.
–> The Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures these biases by analyzing reaction times when linking words or images with specific groups, revealing hidden attitudes.
–> Most tests show that 9 out of 10 white people show implicit prejudice (spend more time associating good words with good when black faces are displayed)
What is benevolent sexism?
- Benevolent sexism - the idea that women are beautiful and delicate creatures, who should thus be put on a pedestal and looked after by men.
What is intergroup conflict !
- Intergroup behaviour is behaviour based on the perception that individuals belong to distinct social groups.
- Conflict is a perceived INCOMPATIBILITY of actions, goals or values between two or more parties.
- Intergroup conflict - NEGATIVE RELATIONS between social groups.
–> Conflicts are NECESSARY for development and change. Conflict in itself is NOT ALWAYS EVIL. The problem is the means and weapons often used to solve or reduce that conflict.
Explanations of Intergroup Conflict - 1. Realistic Conflict Theory (Sherif, 1958) !
Realistic Conflict Theory suggests that prejudice and conflict arise between groups COMPETING FOR LIMITED RESOURCES
–> The Robbers Cave Experiment (Sherif) tested this by splitting boys at a summer camp into two groups, fostering competition through games, which led to hostility, but later reduced conflict by introducing cooperative tasks requiring teamwork.
Explanations of Intergroup Conflict !
2. Categorisation and Stereotyping
3. Social Comparison
- Categorisation, Stereotyping, and Social Groups
○ Tajfel and colleagues argue people can FAVOUR INGROUP and be hostile to the outgroup EVEN WHEN THERE IS NO REWARD for doing so.
–> something psychological is activated as soon as we are assigned into groups
○ Competition is not ”over resources” but to distinguish one’s group favourably in comparison to others –> ingroup favouritism
***See Minimal Group Paradigm Experiments:
In the Klee/Kandinsky study, participants were randomly assigned to groups based on supposed preferences for abstract paintings. Despite no real connection between group members, participants consistently allocated more rewards to their in-group, demonstrating how easily bias and favoritism can form.
3. Social Comparison ○ Groups engage in social comparisons to make their own group membership MEANINGFUL, and they strive to do so in ways that make their own group appear favourable. Our motivation for social comparison may be i) to maintain positive self-ESTEEM, ii) to reduce UNCERTAINTY, or iii) to have optimal DISTINCTIVENESS.
Crowds: Outline Le Bon’s (1895) theory !
Le Bon (1895) argued that people behaved like BARBARIANS in crowds due to a LOSS OF CONSCIOUS REALITY
…De-individuation (loss of personal identity)
–> Creates ANONYMITY (people will be regarded as a group not an individual)
–> CONTAGION (transferred across the whole group): Loss of individuality leads to LOSING INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY and it leads to the transmission of unconscious primitive behaviours
Crowds: Critique Le Bon’s Theory !
- The crowd is REMOVED FROM THE CIRCUMSTANCES under which it arose: Le Bon was ”describing” the revolutionary crowds of France, yet they don’t get a mention in his work.
–> no description of CONTEXT - Assumes crowds have a FIXED set of behaviours that are released: But there surely is DIVERSITY WITHIN CROWDS as well as between crowds.
–> same subgroups in the crowd will actively BEHAVE DIFFERENTLY over time (eg. when there is police presence etc.) - It gives no indication of “who” will be affected:
- By using the concepts of de-individuation and contagion, surely everyone should join in.
- There must be some basis on which people identify with a crowd for them to join one.
(fails to explain why specific individuals join crowds, as participation often depends on shared identification or purpose.)
- Assumes crowd members are ANONYMOUS and irrational: They may be anonymous to those outside of the crowd, but they are often KNOWN TO OTHERS WITHIN the crowd. What may seem irrational to an outsider may not be regarded as irrational to those within the crowd.
(What seems irrational/barbaric to outsiders might be meaningful and rational within the crowd’s context.)
What is De-Individuation
De-individuation (Festinger,1952) – LOSS OF SELF-AWARENESS AND EVALUATION APPREHENSION; occurs in group situations where responsiveness to positive or group norms is fostered, or where anonymity is increased.
The Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo, 1971): Participants who were assigned “prison guard” and “prisoner” roles internalized these roles. The “guards” became aggressive and brutal.
What is emergent norm theory? (Turner & Killian, 1972)
Emergent Norm Theory (Turner & Killian, 1972) suggests that CROWDS are not mindless or chaotic but rather an EXTENSION OF ESTABLISHED GROUP BEHAVIOUR
–> In novel social situations, individuals who emerge as LEADERS or prominent figures create and ESTABLISH NEW NORMS that others follow.
–> These leaders and prototypical members introduce behaviors that become accepted as the group’s norms over time.
However, the theory emphasizes that:
o Crowds are influenced by shared norms and leadership, not simply by irrational behavior.
o The norms that emerge are shaped by the INTERACTION of group members, not predetermined or universal.
o The process is FLEXIBLE, meaning norms may shift depending on context or social dynamics.
