Sociolect theories Flashcards
Accommodation theory
Giles
Proposes speakers adjust speech to accomodate the other participants in the conversation; communication must be two-way with audience language heard/read
Upwards convergence- When a speaker of lowev status attempts to converge towards the language characteristics of a higher status speaker
Downwards convergence- when a speaker adopts tge language characteristicts of a person he/she is addressing, who has a percieved lower status
Mutual convergence- When both speakers converge linguitically to ‘meet in the middle’
Divergence - when speakers’ styles of speech move further apart, increasing social distance
Restricted + elaborated code
Bernstein
Restricted- Highly sociolectal variety used when the audience shares similar intrests and expectations of the world
Elaborated- Idiolect variety unconcerned with group attributes; extensive vocabulary
Social network theory+A01
Milroy
Conducted research in inner city Belfast using a snowball effect to make their way into tight knit working class communities where she gave each individual she studied a networkstrength score out of 5 on how inter grained into the community they were and found a higher score lead to a higher use of non-standard forms such as phonological variable (a) as in the common noun “hat” and phonological variable (th) as in “mother”
Networks will either be closed, where most speakers communicate with multiple other members of the in-group regularly, but will have little or no contact with out-group members, or open, where in-group speakers often communicate with outgroup, and may not actually speak to, or even know, many members of the in-group
However they only studied one community in one location.
Anti-language
Halliday
Sociolects used by groups occupying a marginal or precarious position in society, especially where central activities of the group place them outside the law
Example - Polari which was used primarily by homosexual men in the 1930s-1970s. Estimated around 500 words including the abbreviation “bevvy” (drink) and the neologism “omi” meaning man
Relexicalisation
The process of using new words for old, Partial relexicalisation often occurs in anti-languages
In/Out groups
In-groups are social categories with which individuals identify strongly, marked by the use of sociolect. Out groups are social categories not identified with, marked by lack of sociolectal familiarity
Lexical classification of sociolect
Coleman
Slang- ephemeral(lasting for a very short time), often colloquial (of language) used in ordinary or familiar conversation; not formal or literary) lexis used by the in-group
Jargon- Professional and unofficial lexis allowing for precision
Cant- lexis used to obscure the meaning from the out-group, usually with criminal intent
Teenage talk 7
Stenstrom (o with 2 dots over it)
The language of teenagers is characterised by irregular turn-taking, indistinct articulation, word shortening, verbal duelling, slang, taboo and language mixing
Language and adolescent peer groups
Eckert
Teenagers mark use of linguistic features such as filler words ‘like’ and ‘okay’, rising intonation and multiple negation eg ‘I ain’t done nothin’ in their speech
Social identity theory
Tajfel and turner
Proposes that when in-groups identity is made or becomes salient (most noticeable or important), people often wish to emphasize characterises of their group, including use of sociolect
Among the weaknesses of the theory, there is the fact that although social identity theory explains how discrimination occurs, it fails to predict behaviour.
Secondly, the theory fails to consider factors that may be crucial when groups engage in discrimination such as the cultural expectations of the social constraints.
Language and identity ( Thornborrow)
‘One of the most fundamental ways we have of establishing our identity, and of shaping other people’s views of who we are, is through use of language.’
Define code-switching
Shifting from the use of one linguistic characteristic to another
It can be used to tefer to switching among dialects, styles or registers. Tends to be sub-consious and usually reduces social distance
Overt and Covert prestige
Labov
1966 New York Department study store. Observed how people pronounced post vocalic /r/ in “floor”.
Overall, the employees with higher socioeconomic status (working in higher class stores) pronounced the rhotic / r / more frequently than the employees with lower socioeconomic status but, when asked again, were more likely to carefully pronounce “fourth floor”
Overt= The prestige assosiated with observing percieved social norms and behaving in a socially desirable manner
Covert= The prestige that derives from behaviour that flouts percieved social norms and conventions, yet is advantageous within a particular context/social group
Grices conversational maxims
Successful conversations depend on 4 maxims-
Quantity,quality, relevance and manner
Some may choose to flout maxims accidentaly, or due to shyness or cultural differences. Some may flout deliberatly in an attempt to mislead.
Overlapping maxims, all 4 maxims overlap in conversation.
Politeness theory
Brown and Levinson
Stategies are develeoped in order to save the hearer’s ‘face’; we usually want to socially accept our audience, making them feel valued and avoiding their embarrasment.
Bald on record- no effort by speaker to reduce impact of FTA’s- used by people in a close social group.
Negative politeness- minimise effects of unavoidable FTA’s
Positive politeness- minimize social distance between speaker and audience
Off record(indirect)- Strategy to remove audience from a position where they would suffer FTA’ by not targetting them directly.
Marcin Lewandoski
A sociolect is a variety according to the user whereas, a register is a variety according to the use.
Facework
Goffman
The linguistic endeavor to present ourselves favourably, achieving the required level of perceived social status
Face
The social value a person claims for her/himself in an interpersonal contact as in ‘to save face’
Goffman
Footing
A speakers ‘stance’ towards another participant in a conversation; judgements of social staus
Goffman
Face threatening act
Communicative acts impinging on a hearer’s need to be respected and to maintain self-esteem and status.
Goffman
Positive face
Our need to be liked and accepted. We try to satisfy the positive face wants of others ny expressing admiration or approval and showing respect
Goffman
Negative face
Our right not to be imposed on or interrupted. We attempt to satisfy the negative face wants of others strategically, perhaps through use of mitigation
Goffman
Repair to face
face work done after receiving an FTA; adjusting line in order to regain social status
Goffman
Audience design theory
Bell
Notion that a speaker/writer ‘designs’/ shapes language to take the audience into account. Identifies 4 audience types: addresses (ratified, directly addressed), auditors (ratified, not directly addressed), overhearers (non ratified, detectable) and eavesdroppers (non-ratified, undetectable). Non-audience members with whom the speaker attempts to identify are referees.
Talk at work
Drew and Heritage
Identified some key differences between institutional talk and everyday language including goal orientation; turn-taking rules or restrictions; allowable contributions; professional identity; structure; aysmmetry
Politeness in the workplace
Holmes and Stubbe
Suggested that a great deal of workplace talk is firmly embedded in its social and organisational context. Co-workers typically take a great deal for granted such shared assumptions and common jargon such as the initialisms “FOI” denoting freedom of information, used by health and social care workers
Aysmmetrical power relationship
An ongoing association between parties wherein a difference of status is a major factor in the transactions between parties
Institutional power imbalances
Explored institutional power imbalances, claiming that ‘language is a medium of domination and social force. It serves to legitimize relations of organized power.’
Habermas
Communities of practice
Wegner
The idea that any workplace groups could be described as communities of practice. ‘Groups who regularly engage with each other in the service of a joint enterprise, and who share a repertoire of resources which enables them to communication in a kind of verbal shorthand which is often difficult for outsiders to penetrate
Officialese and Enlistic language varieties
Levy
Suggests there are two specialised varieties used in military language.
Officialese- An artificial and bureatic variety used in both the written and spoken mode
Enlistic - the slang of enlisted personnel with ‘boots on the ground’
To acquire cultural competence in the military, individuals need to become linguistically knowledgeable in the two varieties which have different origins and different emotional tones.
Military terms
Friendly fire - np
Assets, denoting things that can help you eg weapons
Terms that are now being used in everyday language
AWOL - acronym
Face the music - idiom
The performativity of identity
Barker
Identities are not universal, fixed, or essential entities, but rather shaped by the historical and cultural contexts in which they exist, influenced by the specific ways language constructs them.
Martha’s Vineyard study
On the isolated yet popular with tourist Island, Labov studied the pronunciations of the diphthongs /aw/ and /ay/ as in “mice” and “mouse”. He interviewed 69 people from different social groups on the island and found that Islanders, albeit subconsiously, pronounced the dipthongs differently thus distancing themselves from tourists. There was, according to Labov, a need to retain their identity from the Islanders.
