Socio-cognitive [learning] theories]

Question 1

limited prediction from trait scores

Answer 1

Mischel reviewed correlations between trait scores and particular behaviours, and between particular behaviours across (sometimes very similar) situations. He seldom found correlations above .30

Question 2

traits as narrow but over-generalised

Answer 2

• Mischel suggests that assessments of cross-situational consistency may be based on judgements of temporal consistency of (situation-specific) prototypical behaviours in prototypical situations
• But trait assessments can ‘allow for’ person-situation interactions (Kammrath et al., 2005)

Question 3

behavioural signutures

Answer 3

“Might the same person who is more caring, giving, and supportive than most people in relation to his family also be less caring and altruistic than most people in other contexts? Might these variations across situations be meaningful stable patterns that characterize the person enduringly…?” (Mischel)

Question 4

Intraindividual profiles for verbal and physical aggression for one person

Answer 4

An intraindividual profile for one person regarding verbal and physical aggression may show:

1. Verbal Aggression:
   
   • Frequency: Commonly uses yelling and insults.
   • Intensity: Highly emotional and aimed at humiliation.
   • Triggers: Provoked by feeling disrespected.
2. Physical Aggression:
   
   • Frequency: Occurs less often, mainly in high-stress situations.
   • Intensity: Can involve pushing or hitting.
   • Triggers: Triggered by frustration or the need for dominance.

Overall, the individual primarily expresses aggression verbally, with physical aggression surfacing under specific circumstances.

Question 5

classical conditioning

Answer 5

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).
2. Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural response to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation when food is presented).
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus, begins to evoke a response (e.g., a bell).
4. Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to the bell alone)

Question 6

instrumental conditioning

Answer 6

• Behaviours are more likely to be repeated when followedby welcomed outcomes (new positives or removednegatives serve as ‘rewards’, promoting ‘reinforcement’)
• Behaviours are less likely to be repeated when followed byunwelcome outcomes (new negatives or removedpositives serve as ‘punishments’, promoting ‘extinction’)

Question 7

vicarious conditioning

Answer 7

• Witnessing others’ stark responses to a stimulus (e.g., pain after a buzzer) can quickly lead to manifesting similar responses (e.g., physiological arousal) to that stimulus
• E.g., Mikeka et al. (1984) demonstrated near-instant learning of fear of snakes when infant monkeys saw parents react very fearfully to even toy snakes

Question 8

observational learning

Answer 8

• 4-year olds witnessed a male or female adult “playing” in response to a request to do so
• Some adults played with a construction toy; others creatively assaulted and insulted a ‘Bobo’ doll
• Kids taken elsewhere and told they could not play with some desirable toys
• They could play with a Bobo doll, though…
  there was little display of ‘imitative’ novel aggression from the kids who had watched the adult play with a construction toy (‘despite’ their frustration)
  1. The boys copied the man, especially physically
  2. The girls copied the woman’s speech, a bit

Question 9

interpretation of banduras experi

Answer 9

• Apparently ‘gender-appropriate’ novel behaviour - described as “play” - was (acquired then) copied when this group of children were frustrated and then given a novel Bobo doll to play with
• this is a far cry from “watching violence makes people aggressive”

Question 10

learning possibilities

Answer 10

• All participants saw a film of a man beating a Bobo doll who “refused to move out of his way when told to do so”
  
  • Condition 1: Straight to aggression measure
  • Condition 2: First saw the man rewarded for his behaviour with praise and confectionary
  • Condition 3: First saw the man called a bully, spanked with a rolled-up magazine, and threatened with a firmer spanking for any repeat of his aggressive behaviour

Question 11

situation-specific personality characteristics

Answer 11

• Competencies (skills)
  
  • Intelligence (understanding, problem solving)
  • Behavioural (performance, gratification delay)
• Cognitions (beliefs)
  
  • Expectancies
    
    • Conditional (if…then)
    • Perceived self-efficacy
• Standards & goals (and self-regulation)

Question 12

self-efficacy tends to influence

Answer 12

• Goal selection
• Effort, persistence, and performance
• Approach mood and attitude
• ‘Threat’ appraisal and anticipated coping
  
  • Cf. Folkman & Lazarus model of stress

Question 13

actions from person x situation interaction

Answer 13

Kids in the US can usually delay gratification for wrapped presents but less so for marshmallows. The opposite it true in Japan. Gratification delay is a skill that can be taught and learned in specific situations

Question 14

putting it all back together

Answer 14

Behaviours result from combined if-then analyses that themselves result from combinations of inherited temperaments (e.g., cautious or bold); enduring personality characteristics (e.g., goals, trait self-efficacy) situational appraisals (e.g., threat, promise) ..