Society and culture- Women Flashcards
When did women get the vote?
1920 - 19th Amendment
Why did the vote not benefit all women?
African American women still could not vote due to Jim Crow Laws, as well as attempts made to ensure they could not access polling stations - racism trumped women’s rights
Who was the first woman elected to Congress and the first woman elected to state govenor?
1917 - Jeanette Rankin (Congress - Montana)
1924 - Nellie Tayloe Ross (State gov - Wyoming)
What increased freedoms did women see in the 1920s?
- divorce rates doubled between 1910-33 as more women had wages to support themselves (due to roaring 20s economic boom)
POSITIVE impact of ww1 on women
-given jobs in munitions factories
-beginning of a view change that they could do this type of work
-nurses at front line and at home
-few women were given government jobs such as secretaries
-womens land army- agricultural work
-1920 19th ammendment passed- women’s right to vote (arguably as there was a shift on the intelligence of women through their roles in WW1)
NEGATIVE impact of ww1 on women
-still paid less than men for doing the same jobs and were fired quickly when men returned
-big return to womens domestication
economic impact of the roaring 20’s on women (economic boom)
despite expectation of return to domestication of women…
-changing industries created more office jobs
-womens work from 1910-1940 increased from 7.5 million to 13 million
-women bureau of labour 1920- improved womens working conditions
social impacts or roaring 20’s on women
Flappers: worked, cut hair short, smoked and drank in public had more sexual freedom
in essence behaved like young men (shifted public perception of women), eben attended male-dominated sports like boxing events, also went to jazz clubs without escorts as no ‘lady’ would
HOWEVER- although it shifted public perception, they only made up a minute percentage of women
who challenged flappers
- Anti-Flirt League (est 1923) challenged flappers, wanted to protect young women from the unwelcome attention of men.
What was Margaret Sanger’s campaign and how did it improve the lives of women?
aimed to reduce legal/educational barriers to contraception
1916 - est. a birth control clinic in Brooklyn
1921 - founded the American Birth Control League
impact = reduced family sizes + increased sexual freedom
How did education opportunities change (or not) for women in 1920s?
- 1920 - 47.3% of college students were women
- 1930 - 50,000 women had college degrees, 3x more than 1920
- BUT medical schools only gave 5% of their places to women (no. of women doctors declined in 20s)
How did employment opportunities change (or not) for women in 1920s?
- 2 million entered the workforce, but pop. of working women was still only 20% of all women
- more opps in factories and offices but still largely occupied trad. roles (nurses/teachers)
- few progressed to management
- wage discrimination continued
- 2 million entered the workforce, but pop. of working women was still only 20% of all women
- more opps in factories and offices but still largely occupied trad. roles (nurses/teachers)
- few progressed to management
- wage discrimination continued
How many women lost their jobs after the October 1929 Wall St Crash
2 million
impacts of Great Depression on women
-effected people across class, not particulary gender (due to mass unemployment, failing wages and rising prices, lower class suffered the worst
DIRECT IMPACT ON WOMEN
-widowed/ divorced/ deserted women were forced to work (even with parental duties)
-in the 1932 Women’s Bureu of Labour report- 97% of women not working out of want
-womens bureau ignored, hindered push for legislation (e.g minimum wage)
impacts of the new deal on women
-men came first in policies on unemployment and working conditions (e.g Civilian corps provided work for 17-23 year old men, employed 2.5 million)
-1930 Fannie Peck made the housewives league of detroit encouraging shopping in black run stores and help for the poor
- most women employed through WPA, but in peak year only 13.5% in WPA were women, focused on single women, widows or those w/ disabled husbands
- NYA offered education, training and aid to young girls (16-25), not all women, many would then get married and not work
- rare for wife and husband to have a job on FERA or WPA
- some agencies like the CCC didn’t employ women
CAMP TERA
-elanor roosevelt wanted similar for women….
set up camp TERA in 1933, which became federally funded a year later
-by 1936 there were 36 camps employing 5000 women a year HOWEVER only trained on a budget management for 2/3 months
black women benefitted less than white women (earned less and got worse jobs) ….. -1 dollar white man, 63 cents white women, 23 cents black women
How many women were employed on New Deal projects?
- most women employed through WPA, but in peak year only 13.5% in WPA were women, focused on single women, widows or those w/ disabled husbands
- NYA offered education, training and aid to young girls (16-25), not all women, many would then get married and not work
- rare for wife and husband to have a job on FERA or WPA
- some agencies like the CCC didn’t employ women
WHEN and WHY was camp TERA set up and what were the POSITIVES and NEGATIVES
WHEN AND WHY
Camp TERA was set up in 1933.
Elanor Roosevelt wanted a similar programme to mens civilian corps that had employed 2.5 men as part of new deal provisions
POSITIVES
-became federally funded a year later
-by 1936 there were 36 camps employing 5000 women a year
-flora rose showed people how to feed a family of five on 5$ a week
NEGATIVES
-only trained on a budget management for 2/3 months
-black women benefitted less than white women (earned less and got worse jobs) ….. -1 dollar white man, 63 cents white women, 23 cents black women
-TERA had to use volunteers when numbers increased- some were biased
Who was Frances Perkins?
- secretary of labour (1933-45) and first woman cabinet member
- influential in the introduction of social welfare programmes
- highly unpopular with the media because of her gender
How many women joined the workforce during WWI?
- 13 million employed during the war
- roughly 3 million women employed in agriculture, Women’s Land Army of America
impacts of WW2 on women
POSITIVE
-Rescued depression, women showed that they could do men’s work (e.g rosie the riviter became an iconic image for female empowerment)
-through the 1940 selective training and service act women were trained (drafted men prior to the war and trained women)
-16% of married women workeed
- 1941 Lanham Act’s childcare provision was extended- by 1944 130,000 children were in daycare
-Womens Land army reformed and the WLA newsletter started (this provided farm workers countrywide, by 1943 it was estimated 3 million women were in agricultural work)
-black female proffesion opportunities rose (trained as nurses etc)
DOWNFALLS/ LIMITATIONS
-some workers refused hiring black nurses/ workers fearing they would spread sexual disease e.g white women refused to share toilets with black women on detrots rubber plant)
ow did the 1940 Lanham Act help?
- gave all families in which the mother had an army job free childcare (increase in working mothers, also an increase in juvenile crime -> shows dramatic change)
- by 1944, 130,000 children were taken care of daily
Impact of post ww2 changes on women
GOOD
-after a dip, female employment rose (especially for 45-54 year old women) as before the war women were barred from certain jobs but this wasnt reinstated (showed shift in societal perceptions on women due to ww2 work)
-black women who trained as nurses could carry on- big social and economic advancement of opportunity
-war changed husbands attitudes to married women working (pre war survey in 1938 showed that 78% agreed women shouldn’t work but the survey in 1942 showed 13% thought they shouldnt work)
-war changed married women’s attitudes- they acquired skills like never before and developed an appetite for work
BAD
-many women were not reemployed, even though not all men returned to their jobs
-approx 50% of married women left the workforce (due to alot of childcare closing in 1946 AND societal pressure to re domesticate) BUT widowed/ divorced mothers were forced to carry on
-white women still shown preference in employment of women
-BUT women were still paid less for the same work
How did the war positively impact black women?
- worker shortages meant they could train for professions they had been barred from before
- number of black women on nursing courses increased from 1,100 to 2,600 between 1939-45
impact of suburban living on women
GOOD
-in commuting distance of cities
-blacks lived in black suburbs although some close to whites (could gain jobs as maids, cooks, nannies)
-social networks for women (however if women worked they were excluded from these social networks)
-impacted women outside these areas, something to aspire to
BAD
-integration caused problems (e.g 1957 William and Daisy Myers (black) bought a house in a white suburb, when they moved in 3000 ‘neighbours’ surrounded their house and threw stones at their windows
-social networks for women (however if women worked they were excluded from these social networks)
What happened in the 1950s which impacted women?
- suburban sprawl (64% pop growth in suburbs) e.g. Levittowns
- American Dream -> suburban house with a white picket fence and a nuclear family
- led to the housewife movement
Why did working class and non-white women not share in the suburban experience?
- quality of life in cities decreased and ghettos began to form
- educational and job opportunities for women in those areas were poor, worked in domestic roles for white women in the suburbs
- rural women were cut off physically and economically
- black women had the highest rate of poverty
What was the birth rate during the baby boom and what caused it?
- millions of babies born between 1945-64, began at 3.4 mill in 1946, peaked at 4.3 mill in 1954
- Economy was doing well and people felt financially confident to be able to create a family.
- marriage rates increased to
What was the Housewife movement?
- return to traditional values, the domestic and childcare responsibilities of women became their primary responsibility
- pushed by propaganda such as popular TV show ‘I love Lucy’
- kitchen and cleaning appliances marketed as ‘every women’s dream’
What happened to the employment rates of women midway through the 1950s and what did this say about the housewife movement?
- 1950, number of women in employment was rising at a million a year
- 1956, 35% of women and 25% of married women were working
- impact: supplemented husband’s income, led to America’s increased spending
- shows: discontent with being a housewife
What was the 1958 Education Act and how did it affect women?
- schools were supposed to provide job counsellors for girls
- only 12,000 provided for all state schools nationally and they gave highly traditional advice
What did JFK’s 1961 Commission of Enquiry into the State of Women find (published 1963)?
- praised EPA, said it needed enforcing
- women = 1/3 of workers yet faced systemic discrimination
- praised the wider federal job opps for women created by a presidential directive in 1960
- minimum wage still didn’‘t apply to low-paid work done by women
- found non-white women to be in a worse position
When was the Equal Pay Act passed and what did it promise?
1963, promised same wages for same work regardless of race, religion, national origin or sex
What part of the Civil Rights Act protected women and when was it passed?
1964, Title VII - outlawed discrimination in employment on grounds of gender as well as race
why and how did womens liberation movement (1961-80) start
-commision of enquiry on the status of women 1961-influenced by Eleanor Roosevelt
-equal pay act still needed enforcing despite women making up 1/3 of workforce still discriminated against
-minimum wage didn’t apply to women who did low pay domestic work
-not enough daycare to help married women work
-non white women in a bad position because of racial discrimination
-women not encouraged to want a career from birth
-1964 civil rights act included sexual equality
impact of Betty Frieden through feminine mystique
started feminine mystique in 1963 (which showed the constraints of suburban life on women and issues surrounding married women)
-provoked controversy and had women thinking that maybe they were missing something too and had a lack of rights and oppertunities
-1 million copies sold
opposition to feminine mystique
traditionalist women felt judged by book
STOP ERA set up to maintain traditional family values saying women were designed to have babies, women would have lost tex benefits if ratified
womens liberation movement lost ground once conservative reaction kicked in
consequences of the feminine mystique that were implicated by Betty Friedan
NOW
-frieden a founding member
-founded national organisation for women in 1966
-aimed to work with political system to implicate change (caused slow change by educating and helping women)
-wanted civil rights and wanted equal pay act enforced better
-held meetings, demonstrated, collected petitions
REACTION OF YOUNG RADICALS
-thought now wasn’t radical enough
-coined the term ‘womens liberation”
-1968 voice of women’s liberation magazine sold 2,000 copies weekly (collapsed due to work load in a year)
-1968 Miss world pageant, they crowned a pig the winner
-The femeniists: Grace atkison key figure did not allow men or married women to join- advocated against pornography and marriage
-worked with now eventually to commemorate 50th anniversary of 19th amendment in 1970
WHO WERE THE YOUNG RADICALS AND WHAT DID THEY DO
REACTION OF YOUNG RADICALS
-thought now wasn’t radical enough
-coined the term ‘womens liberation”
-1968 voice of women’s liberation magazine sold 2,000 copies weekly (collapsed due to work load in a year)
-1968 Miss world pageant, they crowned a pig the winner
-The femeniists: Grace atkison key figure did not allow men or married women to join- advocated against pornography and marriage
-worked with now eventually to commemorate 50th anniversary of 19th amendment in 1970
WHO WERE NOW AND WHAT DID THEY DO
NOW
-frieden a founding member
-founded national organisation for women in 1966
-aimed to work with political system to implicate change (caused slow change by educating and helping women)
-wanted civil rights and wanted equal pay act enforced better
-held meetings, demonstrated, collected petitions
Who did NOW not focus on?
women of colour
When and what was the Women Strike for Equality?
26th august 1970, 50th anniversary of women getting the vote, radical feminists and moderate feminists came together
- NOW and smaller groups, 50,000 in total
- demanding equal opps in jobs and education, free childcare and free abortion on demand
- “don’t iron while the strike is hot”
What was the impact of the strike?
- NOW’s membership rose by 50% (40,000 by 1974)
- brought issue of equality into public eye
WHAT DID LBJ DO TO IMPROVE THE POSITION OF WOMEN
- 1967 affirmative action to improve employment conditions BUT only covered federal employees of businesses working with the gov)
legislative impact of 1970s on women
-1970s few states allowed abortion under specified circumstances
-1972- supreme court allowed access to contraception for unmarried women under Einstadt Vs Baird
1972 equal rights act got passed to constitution but never got ratified
1973- abortion legalised under ROE vs WADE (BUT STILL RULES ABOUT TIMING AND HEALTH)
What were some economic wins of the 1970s under Nixon?
- Extended EPA
- Tax deductions on childcare for middle class families in medical training programmes if both worked
- 1974 Equal Credit Opportunity Act - could get credit cards and mortgages in own name
Which bill did Nixon veto which would’ve had an economic impact?
Comprehensive Child Development bill, would’ve provided a national network of daycare centres
What was the ERA?
Equal Rights Amendment, since 1923 people had lobbied congress for it but they failed to push it through
What was the state of the ERA by 1980?
had not been ratified because only 35 out of the 38 states necessary had voted for it
Who is Phyllis Schlafly?
- Anti-Feminist who did not want ERA to pass
- set up STOP ERA (‘stop taking our priviledges’), believed women were designed to have babies, needed husbands, would lose tax and benefit privileges under equal rights etc.
- her campaign = main reason ERA was not ratified
FAILURES OF WOMENS MOVEMENT BY 1970S
-1979 US didnt sign up to the UN policy of non discrimination against women in all aspects of life as it was difficult to encforce legislation
-Womens movement began to disintigrate due to growinng conservative opposition (and it fragmented- not all women wanted the same things)
1970 - women = 44% of workforce, 1980 - 51%
- birth rates fell, divorce rates rose
- teenage pregnancies = 1 in 6 births
- female-headed families amongst lower income households, feminisation of poverty, 66% of those in poverty being women
