Social Structure Flashcards
society
a group of people who share a culture and live/interact with each other within a definable area
sociology
attempts to understand the behaviour of groups, the study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by, the society in which they live
macro-sociology
interested in large-scale structural considerations, focus on the effects of structures on individual actions
micro-sociologists
interested in small-scale individual considerations, focus on the effects of individuals on the social structure
what are the 3 traditional theoretical sociological perspectives?
functionalist, conflict and interactionist theories
functionalism
the oldest of the main theories of sociology, a view that conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different parts and organs, each of which has a distinct purpose. approach focuses on the social functions of different structures by seeing what they contribute to the society at large, associate with Emile Durkheim
dynamic equilibrium
complex societies involves many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability
functionalist perspective views society holistically as a collective of:
social facts (elements that serve some function in society), rather than individuals. distinction between manifest and latent function
manifest functions
intended and obvious consequences of a structure
latent functions
unintended or less recognizable consequences, can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful
social dysfunction
a process that has undesirable consequences and may actually reduce the stability of society
conflict theory
views society as a competition for limited resource, social structures and institutions will reflect this competition in their degree of inherent inequality, those with the most power and influence will maintain their positions of power by suppressing the advancement of others, focuses on those aspects that are not functional for one group in society, but dysfunctional for another, associate with Karl Marx (macro theory)
Karl Marx
looked at the economic conflict between different social classes, argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labour and provide the manpower for destruction, believed that capitalism would lead to self-destruction and replacement by socialism
Ludwig Gumplowicz
expanded Marx’s idea by proposing that society is shaped by war and conquest, and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups
Max Weber
agreed with Marx that inequalities in a capitalist system would lead to conflict, but did not believe that the collapse of capitalism was inevitable, argued that there could be more than one source of conflict and that there are several factors that moderate people’s reaction to inequality
criticisms of conflict theory
focuses too much on conflict and does not recognize the role of stability within society, ignores the non-forceful ways in which people can groups reach agreement, approaches society more from the perspective of those who lack power, focuses on economic factors almost exclusively as the sole issue of conflict within society
symbolic interactionism
sees society as the buildup of everyday typical interactions, influenced by the work of George Herbert Mead (micro theory) examines the relationship between individuals and society by focusing on communication, the exchange of information through language and symbols, sees the individual as active in shaping her society (ex. attributing value/belief to symbols) instead of being merely acted upon by society. analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose upon objects, events, and behaviours
what is the principal behind symbolic interactionism
“MEANING” - how humans ascribe meaning to things and act based on their ascribed meaning, language which allows humans to generate meaning through social interaction, how one can modify meanings through an interpretive though process
dramaturgical approach
a type of interactionist philosophy that assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage
what is the primary criticism on symbolic interactionism?
research may not be objective and that the theory is too focused on symbolic interaction (narrow)
feminist theory
concerned with the social experiences of both men and women and the differences between these experiences
glass ceiling
an invisible barrier that limits opportunities for the women in professional contexts
economics
a social science concerned with resources ex. in capitalist societies, economics influences social behaviour
rational choice and social exchange theories built on premise of economics in which:
opportunities for profit motivate and drive human behaviour, thus behaviour is goal oriented
cost-benefit analysis
an important component of the decision-making process; individuals make rational economic decisions to minimize costs and maximize benefits
rational choice theory is concerned with:
decisions made between multiple courses of actions, suggests that there is a simple instrumental reason for all choices (greatest reward at lowest cost), more concerned with measurable resources
social exchange theory is concerned with:
decisions regarding multiple opportunities for interaction, explains that decisions regarding interactions are similar; assign punishments/rewards (not economic in nature, more subjective) to interactions and relationships and prefer those with the greatest personal benefits.
methodological individualism
an aspect of the rational choice model which argues that all social realities are the result of individual actions and interactions
criticisms of rational choice and social exchange:
mathematical calculations for social behaviour fail to consider additional influences, micro-level factors influence our perceived realities but so do large-scale structures
social constructionism
viewpoint that people actively shape their reality through social interactions, it is something that is constructed, not inherent. focuses on the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the construction of their perceived social reality (ex. construction of society by social constructs) (microtheory)
social construct
a concept or practice that is a construct of a group, something that isn’t necessarily inherently true in nature (ex. marriage, money, gender)
social institutions
complexes of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contribute to social order by governing the behaviour of people
what are the 5 functions of family?
reproduction and the monitoring of sexual behaviour, protection, socialization (passing down norms and values of society), affection and companionship, social status
nuclear family
direct blood relations
extended family
includes grandparents, aunts, uncles etc.
monogamy
form of marriage in which two individuals are married only to each other
polygamy
allows an individual to have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously
polygyny
a man married to more than one woman
polyandry
a woman married to more than one man
endogamy
the practice of marrying within a particular group
exogamy
a requirement to marry outside of a particular group (norm such as prohibiting sexual relationships between certain relatives)
kinship
how we think about who we are related to (kin is considered a cultural group rather than a biological one)
bilateral descent
if kin groups involve both the maternal and paternal relations
patrilineal descent
preference for paternal relations
matrilineal descent
preference for maternal relations
patriarchy
men have more authority than women
matriarchy
women have more authority than men
egalitarian family
spouses are treated as equals
family violence
one member of the family is directly responsible for the threat towards the strength of the family by their mistreatment of another person
hidden curriculum
lessons learned in school that may not be stated on the teacher’s lesson plan
educational segregation
the widening disparity between children from high-income neighbourhoods and those from low-income neighbourhoods
teacher expectancy theory
teachers tend to quickly form expectations of individuals students, once these expectations have been formed, they tend to act toward the student with these expectations in mind. if the student accepts the teacher’s expectations as reasonable, the student will begin to perform in accordance with them as well
educational stratification
a social arrangement that becomes entrenched through educational segregation and is reproduced in new generations of children, such that the children’s educational achievements mirror those of their parents
organized religion is:
a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on objects and ideas that are recognized as sacred, extraordinary, and worthy of reverence
what are the forms of religious organizations?
ecclesia, church, sect, cult/new religious movement
ecclesia
dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions
church
a type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the larger society, may be tied to the state (state church) or independent of it (denomination)
sect
a religious organization that is distinct from that of the larger society, often formed from breaking away from larger religious institutions
cult/new religious movement
a religious organization that is far outside society’s norms and often involves a very different lifestyle
secularization
the process through which religion loses its social significance in modern societies
fundamentalism
a response to modernist societies in which there is strong attachment to traditional religious beliefs and practices
what are the five major world religions?
christianity, islam, hinduism, buddhism, sikhism, judaism
christianity
the largest single faith in the world, monotheistic (one God), includes belief in prophets, an afterlife, and judgement day
Islam
the second largest religion in the world, monotheistic (Allah), followers believe in prophets, afterlife, judgment day, do not separate religion and state
Hinduism
developed in India, polytheistic, belief in reincarnation
Buddhism
developed in India, believed in overcoming cravings for physical or material pleasures primarily through meditative practices
Sikhism
monotheistic religion, believes in one god and the teachings of the ten Gurus
Judaism
monotheistic and formed the historical basis for Christianity and Islam, believe that God formed a covenant with Abraham and Sarah, and that if the Ten Commandments were followed, God would bring paradise to earh
religiosity
refers to the extent of influence of religion in a person’s life
rational-legal authority
power structures based on legal rules and regulations stipulated in a document (ex. the Constitution)
traditional authority
governments derive power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice
charismatic authority
leaders’ power from their power of persuasion
Aristarchic governments
controlled by a small group of people, selected based on specific qualifications, with decision-making power, includes aristocracies/meritocracies
aristocracy
ruled by elite citizens, often by noble birth
meritocracy
ruled by the meritorious, like those with a record of meaningful social contributions
autocratic governments
controlled by a single person, or a selective small group, with absolute decision-making power, include dictatorships, fascist governments
dictatorships
ruled by one person
fascist governments
ruled by a small group of leaders
monarchic government
controlled by a single person, or a selective small group, who inherited their leadership role, like kings and queens. can be absolute or constitutional (limited through formal constitutions)
authoritarian government
consists of unelected leaders, the public might have some individual freedoms but have no control over representation, include totalitarianism
totalitarianism
unelected leaders regulate both public and private life through coercive means of control
democratic government
consists of elected leaders, the public has some degree of political decision-making power through either direct decisions or representation, includes direct and representative democracies
direct democracies
governments in which there is direct public presentation
representative democracies
governments in which there is indirect public participation through the election of representatives
political parties
formal groups of people that share the same principle political beliefs and organize with a common purpose of ensuring governance that supports these principles through appropriate policies
oligarchic government
leaders can be elected or unelected, the public might have the power to elect representation, but people have little influence in directing decisions and social change. controlled by a small group of people with shared interests, ex. theocracy
republican governments
government structure that considers their country to be public concerns and are thus democratic in nature, meaning that people have the supreme power in these societies
federalist governments
government structure that includes a governing representative head that shares power with constituent groups
parliamentary governments
government structure that includes both executive and legislative branches that are interconnected
presidential government
also include organizing branches, as well as a head of state
anarchy
refers to societies without a public government
economics is a political concept and includes the 4 categories of economic structures:
command, market, mixed, traditional
command economies (planned)
economic decisions are based on a plan of production and the means of production are often public (ex. socialism, communism)
market economies
decisions are based on the market and the means of production are often private (ex. laissez-faire, free market economies)
mixed economies
blend elements of command and market economies with both public and private ownership
traditional economies
consider social customs in economic decisions (ex. bartering, trade)
capitalism
an economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned, and goods/services are produced for a profit, driving force is pursuit of personal profit
socialism
an economic system where resources and production are collectively owned, includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs, driving force is collective goals
communism
a specific socialist structure in which there is common ownership of the means of production, but also the absence of currencies, classes, and states, based on shared economic, political, and social ideologies
welfare capitalism
a system in which most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society
state capitalism
a system in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations
what are two forms of social solidarity in relation to economic approaches?
mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity
mechanical solidarity
allows society to remain integrated because individuals have common beliefs that lead to each person having the same fundamental experience, share a collective conscience
collective conscience
presumes the existence of a greater social order that guides individual actions through shared beliefs, morals and values
organic solidarity
allows society to integrate through a division of labour, which leads to each person having a different personal experience; thus, each movement is distinguishable and separate
primary care
describes the care provider responsible for ongoing preventative care or disease management, or community-based care
secondary care
includes acute care (emergency department) as well as specialty care
tertiary care
a very specialized form of health care (cancer hospitals, palliative care)
medical model of disease
emphasizes physical or medical factors as being the cause of all illness
medicalization
the process by which a condition comes to be reconceptualized as a disease with a medical diagnosis and treatment
social model of disease
emphasizes the effect one’s social class, employment status, neighborhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet, and many other factors can have on a person’s health. postulates social pressures create the conditions for health and illness
social epidemiology
the field that studies how social organization contributes to prevalence, incidence, and distribution of disease across and within populations
food desert
an area where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find because there are no proper grocery stores
sick role
concept that when a person is ill, they are not a contributing member of society (a type of deviance), only describes acute illness, illness may be blamed on patient’s lifestyle rather than sanctioned or viewed as legitimate. describes society’s response to an illness.
illness experience
focus on patient’s subjective experience of illness, focus on meanings people give to their illness and how the experience of being ill affects patient’s daily lives, important in chronic illness
culture
a shared way of life, including the beliefs and practices that a social group shares
symbolic culture
consists of symbols that are recognized by peoples of the same culture which convey agreed-upon meanings that can communicate the values and norms of the culture (includes rituals and gestures)
language
a symbolic system that is codified for communication, evolves constantly and is vital for shaping ideas about who we are relative to each other in society
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
asserts that people understand their world through language, and that language in turn shapes how we experience the world
material culture
involves physical objects or artifacts, where the importance placed on material objects can reflect the culture’s values
non-material culture
specific to social thoughts and ideas, such as values
popular culture
a phrase used to describe features of culture that appeal to the masses, often those communicated through mass media such as radio and television
high culture
describes those features often limited to the consumption of the elite (ex. ballet, opera)
cultural icons
signs that represent their meaning in a given culture
cultural universals
patterns or traits that are common to all people (ex. tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs)
value
defined as a culture’s standard for evaluating what is good or bad
belief
the convictions or principles that people hold
norms
the visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society, help define what types of behaviours are acceptable and in accordance with a society’s values and beliefs
sociobiology
the study of how biology and evolution have affected human social behaviour
cultural diffusion
the transfer of elements of culture from one social group to another, this contributes to cultural similarities between different societies
cultural compentence
effective interactions between people from different cultures
cultural transmission
the process through which this information is spread across generations, or the mechanisms of learning
social change
societies experience a change in state
revolution
involves fundamental changes and social restructuring
cultural lag
explains that material culture changes much faster than non-material culture, which often resists change
traision shock
period of adjustment necessitated when an individual experiences changes (ex. social changes)
culture shock
disorientation as a result of an individual being subjected to alternative cultures and foreign environments
reverse culture shock
involves disorientation upon an individual’s return to their initial environment
sociocultural evolution
a set of theories describing the processes through which societies and cultures have progressed over time (focuses more on how the human minds-social interactions have evolved rather than human bodies-biological factors), theories include modernization and sociobiology
conflict theory
views societies in a framework of class conflicts and views the domination of one group by another group as an integral aspect of social order
functionalism
describes society as a complex system with components that have social functions that work together to promote social stability, criticized for emphasizing stability too much while neglecting conflict
symbolic interactionism
a microsociological perspective that focuses on how the behaviour of individuals depends on the ways in which they define themselves and others, calls attention to detailed and individual-oriented processes that take place within the larger aspects of society
social constructionism
a theory of knowledge that focuses on how individuals and groups contribute to the construction of their perceived society
