Self-Identity & Group Identity Flashcards
self-concept/self-identity
the sum of an individual’s knowledge and understanding of his or herself, includes physical/psychological/social attributes, which can be influenced by the individual’s attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas
self-consciousness
awareness of one’s self
self-schemas
beliefs a person has about themselves
personal identity
consists of one’s own sense of personal attributes
social identity
consists of social definitions of who you are
self-reference effect
tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves
ideal self
constructed out of your life experiences, societal expectations, and the things you admire about role models
incongruity
the result when the real self falls short of the ideal self
what are 3 powerful influences on an individual’s development of self concept?
self-efficacy, locus of control, self esteem
self-efficacy
belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness
locus of control
internal locus of control (belief that they are able to influence outcomes through effort and action) and external locus of control (perceive outcomes as controlled by outside forces)
self esteem
one’s overall self-evaluation of one’s self-worth
looking-glass self
idea developed by Charles Cooley that a person’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perception of others. people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them
social behaviourism
idea developed by George Mead where the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others. where “me” is how the generalized other perceives the individual, i.e. the social self, and “I” is the response of the individual to the attitudes of others, i.e. the self as subject
symbolic interactionism
school of sociology that believes use of symbols/communication leads to emergence of the self
socialization
the process through which people learn to be proficient and functional members of society, a process that relies on socializing and interacting with members of society
norms
spoken or unspoken rules and expectations for the behaviours of members
normative behaviour
social behaviours that follow expectations and meet the ideal social standard
sanctions
rewards and punishments for behaviours that are in accord with or against norms
formal norms
generally written down, precisely defined, publicly presented, and often accompanied by strict penalties for those who violate them (ex. laws)
informal norms
generally understood but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments
mores
norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly enforced
folkways
norms that are less important but shape everyday behaviour
taboo
behaviours that customs forbid, endorsement of the norm is so strong that its violation is considered forbidden and oftentimes punishable through formal or non-formal methods. a social construct, there is no universal taboo
anomie
a concept that describes the social condition in which individuals are not provided with firm guidelines in relation to norms and values and there is minimal moral guidance or social ethic. characteristic of societies in which social cohesion is less pronounced, suggests the disintegration of social bonds between individuals and their communities
non-normative behaviour
viewed as incorrect because it challenges shared values and institutions, thus threatening social structure and cohesion
deviance
actions that violate dominant social norms, whether formal or informal, a social construct and is situational and contextual
Edwin Sutherland’s differential association
perspective argues that deviance is a learned behaviour resulting from interactions between individuals and their communities, individuals become deviant when their contacts with favourable attitudes toward deviance outweigh their contacts with unfavourable attitudes. suggests individual behaviour is determined by environment
Howard Becker’s labeling theory
perspective suggests that deviance is the result of society’s response to a person rather than something inherent in the person’s actions, behaviours become deviant through social processes (self-fulfilling prophecies)
agents of social control
dominant power groups that are able to enforce the boundaries of normal behaviour and thus define the difference between non-deviant and deviant behaviours, i.e. able to attach stigmas to certain behaviours
Robert Merton’s structural strain theory
perspective purports that deviance is the result of experienced strain, either individual or structural, anomie is the state in which there is a mismatch between the common social goals and the structural/institutionalized means obtaining these goals
collective behaviour
a third form of social behaviour (normative/non-normative) in which social norms for the situation are absent or unclear, describes the actions of people operating as a collective group, usually reflect spontaneous situations and a loss of independent moral judgement in exchange for a sense of the group
what are four main forms of collective behaviour?
crowds, publics, masses, social movements
crowd
a group that shares a purpose, ex. herd behaviour, mob (emotion is heightened and behaviour is directed toward a specific and violent cause), panic (situation in which fear escalates to the point that it dominates thinking and thus affects entire groups)
public
a group of individuals discussing a single issue, which conflicts with the common usage of the term
mass
a group whose formation is prompted through the efforts of mass media, share common interests
social movements
collective behaviour with the intention of promoting change, can be active movements (attempts to foster social change) or expressive movements (attempts to foster individual change)
fad/craze
example of a collective behaviour in which something experiences a rapid and dramatic incline in reputation and remains popular among a large population for a brief period before experiencing a rapid and dramatic decline in reputation
trends
longer-lived than fads and often leads to permanent social changes
mass hysteria
diagnostic label that refers to the collective delusion of some threat that spreads through emotions and escalates until it spirals out of control, the result of public reactions to stressful situations
outbreaks/epidemics/pandemics
collective behaviour that involves an unexpected increase in the incidence of an infectious disease in a given region (outbreak are the most limited, pandemics are the most widespread)
moral panic
a specific form of panic as a result of a perceived threat to social order
riots
example of collective behaviour, a form of crowd behaviour with no specific end, usually occur as a result of general dissatisfaction with social conditions
what are 6 agents of socialization
family, school, peer groups, workplace, religion/government, mass media/technology
what are two possible outcomes of interactions between multiple cultures in the same space?
assimilation and amalgamation
assimilation
the process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture
amalgamation
occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group
multiculturalism/pluralism
perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions
subculture
a segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differ from that of the larger society
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
includes six identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning, which form the basis of ethical behaviour
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development consists of 3 levels with 2 stages each
Level 1 (Pre-conventional level of moral reasoning: morality judged by direct consequences to the self): 1. obedience and punishment orientation, 2. self-interest orientation Level 2 (conventional level of moral reasoning: morality judged by comparing actions to society's views and expectations): 3. interpersonal accord and conformity, 4. authority and social-order maintaining orientation Level 3 (post-conventional level of moral reasoning: morality judged by internal ethical guidelines): 5. social contract orientation, 6. universal ethical principles
stage 1 obedience and punishment orientation
individuals focus on the direct consequences to themselves of their actions
stage 2 self-interest orientation
individuals focus on the behaviour that will be their best interest, with limited interest in the needs of others
stage 3 interpersonal accord and conformity
individuals focus on the approval and disapproval of others, and try to be “good” by living up to expectations
stage 4 authority and social-order maintaining orientation
beyond a need for individual approval, individuals feel a duty to uphold laws, rules, and social conventions
stage 5 social contract orientation
individuals see laws as social contracts to be changed when they do not promote general welfare
stage 6 universal ethical principles
morality is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles; laws are only valid if they are grounded in justice
attribution theory
rooted in social psychology, attempts to explain how individuals view behaviour, both our own behaviour and the behaviour of others
dispositional attribution
internal causes
situational attribution
external causes
given a set of circumstances, how to individuals attribute behaviour?
to internal causes or external causes
what are 3 influences that determine whether behaviour is attributed to internal or external causes?
consistency, distinctiveness, consensus
fundamental attribution error
tendency to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person’s character or personality
action-observer bias
tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities
self-serving bias
tendency to attribute successes to ourselves and our failures to others or the external environment
optimism bias
belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us
just world phenomenon
tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve
halo effect
tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics
physical attractiveness stereotype
a specific type of halo effect; people tend to rate attractive individuals more favourable for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive
social perception
the understanding of others in our social world, the initial information we process about other people in order to try to understand their mindset and intentions
social cognition
the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception
false consensus
occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do
projection bias
happens when we assume others have the same beliefs we do
stereotypes
oversimplified ideas about groups of people, based on characteristics
prejudice
refers to the thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience
discrimination
involves acting a certain way toward a group
reverse discrimination
“discriminating against the majority” ex. affirmative actions that attempt to reverse discrimination
racism
prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race, or hold that one race is inferior to another
institutional discrimination
refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives
scapegoats
the unfortunate people at whom displaced aggression is directed
illusory correlation
people who are seen as distinctive draw more attention are are often likely to be seen as representative of groups
self-fulfilling prophecy
behaviours that affirm the original stereotypes
stereotype threat
a self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
ethnocentrism
tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one’s own culture
cultural relativism
judging another culture based on it’s own standards
group
a collection of any number of people who regularly interact and identify with each other, sharing similar norms, values, and expectations
primary group
plays an important role in an individual’s life; these groups are usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages with in person, in long-term, emotional ways
secondary group
larger and more impersonal, may interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time
expressive functions
meeting emotional needs (ex. primary groups)
instrumental functions
meeting pragmatic needs (ex. secondary groups)
what are subcategories of primary and secondary groups?
in-groups and out-groups
in-group
a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who they are
out-group
a group that an individual does not belong to
reference group
a standard measure that people compare themselves to
dyad
smallest social group, contains two members
triad
group that contains 3 members, there are 3 relationships, one between each pair of members
aggregate
people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity
category
people who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together
bureaucracy
term used to describe an administrative body and the processes by which this body accomplishes work tasks, arises from an advanced division of labour with specific roles
what are the characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy?
covers a fixed area, is hierarchically organized, workers have expert training in an area of specialty, organization rank is impersonal and advancement depends on technical qualification, workers follow set procedures to increase predictability and efficiency
rationalization
associated with bureaucracy, describes the process by which tasks are broken down into component parts to be efficiently accomplished by workers within the organization
McDonaldization
the rationalization of fast food production, four components that reflect the principles of bureaucracy (efficiency, calculability, predictability, control)
Iron Law of Oligarchy
revolutionary organizations inevitably become less revolutionary as their organization structures develop and become entrenched, oligarchy indicates rule by an elite few which also becomes entrenched
social psychology seeks to understand:
how people influence each other through their interactions
mere presence
people simply being in each other’s presence can have a measurable effect on an individual’s performance
social facilitation effect
people tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present (presence of others can impair performance when completing complex or novel tasks), presence of others stimulates arousal which serves to activate our dominant response (practiced, learned response)
deindividuation
when situations provide a high degree of arousal and a very low sense of responsibility, people may act in startling ways and lose their sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality. result of a lack of self-awareness and disconnection of behaviours from attitudes
what factors can induce deindividuation to occur?
group size, physical anonymity, arousing activities
bystander effect
the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders, presence of bystanders creates a diffusion of responsibility
social loafing
tendency for people to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable
when does social facilitation occur over social loafing?
when being part of a group increases concerns over evaluation
when does social loafing occur over social facilitation?
when being part of a group decreases concerns over evaluation
group polarization
tendency of groups to intensify the preexisting views of members, so that the average view of a member is accentuated (causes more divisiveness between two groups)
what are two reasons for group polarization?
informational influence and normative influence
informational influence
in group discussion, the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favour the dominant viewpoint
normative influence
based on social desirability, taking a stronger stance in order to better relate with and internalize the group’s belief system, wanting to be accepted or admired by others.
social comparison
evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of others
groupthink
a state of harmony within a group where everyone is seemingly in a state of agreement
mindguarding
some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group by filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group
stigma
demeaning labels often assigned to deviant members of society
conformity
the phenomenon of adjusting behaviour or thinking based on the behaviour or thinking of others
what are 3 ways that behaviour may be motivated by social influences?
compliance, identification, internalization
compliance
compliant behaviour is motivated by the desire to seek reward or to avoid punishment
identification
identification behaviour is motivated by the desire to be like another person or group
internalization
internalized behaviour is motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into one’s own value system
normative social influence
when the motivation for compliance is desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection (public compliance, but not necessarily private acceptance of social norms)
informational social influence
the process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like others know something they don’t, is more likely to apply to new situations, ambiguous situations, or when an obvious authority figure is present
what are 6 factors that influence conformity?
group size, unanimity, cohesion, status, accountability, no prior commitment
what are the five elements that compose social structures?
statuses, social roles, groups, social networks, organizations
status
broad term in sociology that refers to socially defined positions within a society
master status
the status that dominates other statuses and determines the individual’s general position in society
ascribed status
those that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person’s own efforts
achieved status
considered to be due largely to the individuals efforts
social roles
expectations for people of a given social status
role conflict
when there is a conflict in society’s expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person (ex. male nurse)
role strain
when a single status results in conflicting expectations
role exit
the process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one’s self-identity to take on another
social network
a web of social relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked to others as well as those in which people are indirectly connected through others, often based on groups that individuals belong to
organization
large, more impersonal groups that come together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently
what are the 3 types of organizations?
utilitarian (members get paid for their efforts), normative (membership based on morally relevant goals), coercive (members do not have a choice in joining)
empathy
the ability to identify with others’ emotions
impression management/self-presentation
the conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others
self-handicapping
a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly
dramaturgical perspective
stems from symbolic interactionism and posits that we imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others, our identities are not stable but are dependent on our interactions with others, interactions can be broken into “front stage” and “back stage”
nonverbal communication
involves all methods for communication that we use that do not include words
warning colours
bright colours meant to advertise to predators that an organism is toxic or noxious
pheromones
chemical messengers used to communicate
what are some social behaviours?
attraction, aggression, attachment, social support
frustration aggression principle
suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression
social support
a major determinant of health and wellbeing for humans and other animals
foraging
behaviour involving the search for and exploitation of food resources by animals
random mating
all members of a species are equally likely to mate with each other, meaning that there are no spatial, genetic, or behavioural limitations to mating
assortative mating
nonrandom mating pattern in which individuals with similar genotypes or phenotypes mate with one another more frequently than would be expected with random mating
disassortative mating
individuals with more disparate traits mate more frequently than would be expected with random mating
inclusive fitness
defined by the number of offspring the organism has, how it supports its offspring, and how its offspring support others in a group
inclusive fitness theory
proposes than an organism can improve its overall genetic success through altruistic social behaviours
altruistic behaviour
one that helps ensure the success or survival of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of the individual
evolutionary game theory
used to try and predict large, complex systems, such as the overall behaviour of a population
