Social Learning

Question 1

A father puts his son in his room every time the boy hits his sister. To increase the probability that the boy will stop hitting his sister, the father should:

Answer 1

Punishment, like all forms of behavior therapy used to reduce undesirable behaviors, is most effective when used in conjunction with reinforcement for alternate desirable behaviors. In this case, the 50 cents would represent reinforcement (a stimulus that increases the probability of a behavior) for the alternate desirable behavior of being nice
give the child 50 cents each time he is nice to his sister.

Question 2

Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) multi-component model of working memory includes?

Answer 2

According to the multi-component model, working memory consists of a central executive and three subsystems – the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer.

The central executive is the primary component of working memory and acts as an “attentional control system.”

Question 3

__________ inhibition occurs when the ability to remember new information is impaired by previously acquired information.

This theory proposes that forgetting occurs when the ability to recall information is affected by previously learned or subsequently acquired.

___________ interference occurs when newly learned information interferes with old information

Answer 3

Proactive inhibition occurs when old (previous) learning interferes with the learning or recall of new (subsequent) information

Interference Theory

Retroactive -( bye to the old and in with the new.) Retroactive inhibition occurs when recently learned information interferes with the ability to recall previously learned information.

Question 4

What is the tip of the tongue forgetting referred to as?

Answer 4

Cue-Dependent Forgetting_ forgetting results when cues needed to retrieve information from long term memory are insufficient or incomplete. Due to inadequate retrieval cues

Question 5

What are the three processes of memory?

What two models explain how memory works? And what are their components/levels?

According to the processing model, which is the deepest level of processing and produces the greatest recall?

Answer 5

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval.

Information processing (Multi-Store) Model: describes three components:

• sensory memory (Brief: echoic and iconic: retain or represent the original form of the sensation.)
• short-term memory (primary/passive memory (chunking)
• working memory) , and long-term memory (recent (secondary) memory and remote memory(elaborate rehearsal. Encoding semantic)

Levels of Processing Model: differences in memory are due to differences in depth of processing instead of separate memory stores.

• Structural: to remember a word you focus on structural/physical properties (Capital letters)
• phonemic: Sound (what does the word rhyme with?)
• semantic. (meaning)

-Semantic

Question 6

The existence of separate short and long-term memory is supported by studies of______ . These studies show that when given a list, those items in the beginning and the end are remembered. Why does this occur? If delayed then what happens?

Answer 6

-serial position effect.

Primacy and recency effect : Primacy - rehearsed and stored in long-term memory
recency still in short term

Only the primacy will be remembered.

Question 7

What are the components of Long-term memory and how are they explained?

Declarative is subdivided into what two types? What is the first to go with age and part of episodic memory?

What two aspects of LTM correspond to procedural and declarative memory that require either automatic or conscious recollection.

Which type of LTM involves remembering to do things in the future?

Answer 7

Procedural memory: stores information on how to do things and is used to acquire, retain, and employ perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills and habits.
Declarative memory: what you learn _ acquisition of facts.

Semantic: general knowledge
episodic (autobiographical) — flashbulb

implicit and explicit

prospective memory

Question 8

According to Beck, ___ are systematic errors or biases in the information processing and are the link between maladaptive cognitive schemas and negative automatic thoughts.

_____ is drawing conclusions without collaborative evidence>

_____ drawing general conclusions based on one event.

______ __________ attending to detail while ignoring the total picture.

___________ erroneously attributing external events to one’s self>

____ ______ Either or ways of thinking.

______ _____ believing things are a certain way because you feel they are a certain way.

Answer 8

Cognitive distortions

Arbitrary inference : occurs when a person draws a conclusion about an event or experience without there being corroborating evidence and/or when there is contradictory evidence.:

generalization

selective abstraction

Personalization

Dichotomous Thinking

emotional reasoning

Question 9

According to Beck, __________ are surface level thoughts that intercede between the event or stimulus and the individual’s emotional and behavioral reactions: these thoughts are not necessarily associated to dysfunction but can become dysfunctional schemas if not carefully examined.

Answer 9

Automatic thoughts are repetitive, automatic self-statements that are elicited by certain stimuli and that are associated with strong emotions.

Question 10

What diagnosis represents the cognitive profile of: negative view of the self, the world, and the future?

What diagnosis represents the cognitive profile: excessive form of normal survival and consists of unrealistic fears about psychological threats?

Answer 10

Depression (cognitive triad)

Anxiety

Question 11

_____ involves reducing reinforcement; for example, from a continuous to an intermittent schedule.

While _____________ involves the gradual removal of prompts.

What is the difference?

Answer 11

Thinning

Fading

Thinning involves reinforcements.

Question 12

_______ occurs when a punishment loses its effectiveness.

____________ occurs when a reinforcer loses its effectiveness.

Answer 12

Habituation: punishing a boy for hitting his sister and increasing the time he has to stay in his room for each incident.

Satiation (eating too many hamburgers)

Question 13

According to interference theory, _________occurs when old (previous) learning interferes with the learning or recall of new (subsequent) information.

And __________ occurs when recently learned information (new) interferes with the ability to recall previously learned information (old).

Answer 13

Proactive inhibition

Retroactive inhibition

Question 14

Sandy Y. has been instructed to limit (control) the number and kind of stimuli that are associated with cigarette smoking. By doing so, smoking will become associated with (under the control of) a restricted number of stimuli. This operant technique is used to reduce the frequency and/or strength of a behavior.

This is a form of positive punishment and involves applying a penalty following an undesirable behavior and then having the individual practice more appropriate behaviors in an exaggerated fashion. It is most useful for the treatment of socially inappropriate and self-injurious behaviors.

On the other hand, this involves requiring the individual t deliberately repeat the undesirable behavior until it becomes aversive.

Another type of punishment involves the removal of a specific positive reinforcement each time a behavior is performed. Ex: Sandy Y., she might have to give up an hour of watching television each time she smokes

Answer 14

One of them, stimulus control, involves stimulus discrimination, or learning to respond differently in the presence of different stimuli. When a behavior is under the control of stimuli in this manner, the behavior is said to be under stimulus control.

Positive Punishment : Overcorrection

Opposite Negative Practice.

-Response Cost: negative reinforcer that involves removing a specific reinforcer each time the target behavior is performed.

Question 15

Why is Time out not a form of extinction?

Answer 15

Time out involves removing all sources of a reinforcement for a specific period of time that may or may not have been established or maintained by that reinforcer
Extinction is continuous removal of a reinforcer from a previous reinforced response.

Question 16

Why is Time out not a form of extinction?

When is time out most effective? Is during of the time out important?

In regarding to decreasing behavior with extinction, it is important to remember that it’s effectiveness is influenced by?

Answer 16

Time out involves removing all sources of a reinforcement for a specific period of time that may or may not have been established or maintained by that reinforcer

Extinction is continuous removal of a reinforcer from a pervious reinforced response.

Time out is most effective when it’s combined with reinforcement for an alternative behavior and when it begins with a brief explanation why.

-no

• consistency of extinction:
• schedule: continuous, or if intermittent schedules: fixed, or variable interval is best
• Magnitude and duration
• reinforce other behaviors.

Question 17

The effectiveness of a positive reinforcer is influenced by:

Answer 17

Contingency: should be available only when the target behavior is performed

• Immediacy
• Schedule of reinforcer: continuous to intermittent (thinning)
• magnitude: greater the amount, the greater it’s effectiveness: Past the point–satiation
• verbal clarification
• Prompts: -positive discriminative stimulus. the reminder to clean one’s room is discriminative stimulus as it signals praise once the job is done. — gradual removal of prompts–Fading

Question 18

According to this model, whether a person uses the ____ route (carefully considers an argument) or ______ route (relies on heuristic criteria) depends on several factors including the nature of the message and the person’s mood. With regard to the latter, a person is more likely to rely on the ______ route when he/she is in a good mood.

Answer 18

central

peripheral

peripheral

Question 19

What is the difference between Prejudice, Stereotype, Discrimination, and Privilege?

Answer 19

Prejudice: affective-negative feelings towards a person/group
Stereotype: cognitive: beliefs about a person based on group membership
Discrimination, Behavior: unequal treatment of a person/group based on membership or social categorization
Privilege: Aspects of American power system that occurs when the rights or benefits belongs to one group

Question 20

What is the Field Theory?

What are the behavioral consequences of unresolved tension in the field and proposes that memory tends to be better for uncompleted tasks then for completed because uncompleted tasks create the greatest psychic tension?

Answer 20

• Approach-approach Conflict
• avoidance-avoidance Conflict
• approach-avoidance– when moving towards a goal, the avoidance force becomes stronger. move away then the approach becomes stronger
• Double approach-avoidance_ most difficult to resolve

-Zeigarnik Effect

Question 21

Methods for improving memory

An _________ is made up of words beginning with the first letter of each word or phrase that is to be remembered. For example, the acrostic “my very educated mother just sent us nachos” is used to memorize the names of the eight planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune).

______________involves grouping related items of information. To remember a string of 21 numbers, for instance, you might chunk the numbers into groups of three, resulting in seven distinct units of information.

The ________ is an imagery mnemonic that is useful for paired associate tasks in which two words must be linked. It involves creating an image for each word and visually joining the two images. As an example, to remember that the French word for church is eglise, you could form an image of a church with a giant egg outside the church doors.

An ____________ is a word that is formed using the first letter of each item in a list.

________ is the principle that the greater the similarity between the way information is encoded and the cues that are present at the time of recall, the better the recall.

Information is more likely to be transferred from short-term to long-term when new information is made more meaningful by relating it to existing knowledge. What is this called?

Answer 21

acrostic

Chunking: Chunking is useful for maintaining information in working memory.

keyword method: imagery mnemonic that is useful for paired associate tasks in which two words must be linked.

acronym: For example, the acronym HOMES is used to remember the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior).

Encoding specificity: this prediction is confirmed by research on state-dependent learning which shows that recall information is sometimes better when the leaner is in the same emotional state during learning and recall- anxious while studying and anxiety during the test= greater recall.

Elaboration Rehearsal

Question 22

Mnemonic Devices are?

____ involves visually associating items to be remembered with a series of places (loci) already in memory– learned in grade school

_______ is another imagery technique that is useful for paired associate tasks in which two words must be linked.

__________ is a verbal mnemonic that is a work that is formed using the first letter of each item in the list.

______ is a phrase or rhyme that’s constructed form the first letter of each word that is to be memorized.

Answer 22

Mnemonic devices are formal strategies for improving memory and are classified as visual or verbal.

Method of loci ( visual mnemonic)

the keyword method (good to learn a foreign language)

Acronym: RAID for the primary symptoms of acute stress disorder: (re-experiencing, avoidance, increased arousal, dissociative) : ADDRESSING ( Age, Development Disability, Religion, Ethnicity, socioeconomic, sexual orientation, – indigenous….

Acrostic: See Piaget Creep Forward

Question 23

Yerkes-Dodson Law suggests that moderate levels of arousal ______ the efficiency of learning and performance, while extremely _____ and _____ levels are associated with ______ efficacy. What is the relationship between arousal and learning?

Answer 23

moderate arousal–maximize learning and performance
extremely low and high — decrease

This is inverted-u relationship ^

Question 24

Miller proposed that short-term memory can hold how many units of information?

Answer 24

Short-term memory is very limited in terms of duration and capacity, but the latter can be expanded by “chunking” information into meaningful units.

Miller proposed that short-term memory can hold between 5 and 9 units of information and that the ability to hold larger amounts of information is due to chunking information into groups of related items.

Question 25

What is declarative memory and episodic and sematic ?

Procedural ?

What is the most common way that memory is divided?

Answer 25

Different experts categorize the types of memory in different ways. One frequently cited method divides memory into procedural and declarative memory with declarative memory including semantic and episodic (autobiographical) memories.

Episodic memory is a record of personally experienced events.

Semantic memory stores information about language, facts, and concepts.

Procedural memory stores information about how to do things (e.g., ride a bicycle, play tennis).

Some authors use the term “representational memory” to refer to memories for general knowledge, common sense, and skills.

Question 26

Thermal (peripheral skin-temperature) biofeedback is useful for?

Respiratory biofeedback is used as a treatment for?

Electroencephalograph (EEG) biofeedback provides information on brain wave activity and is used to treat?

Electromyography (EMG) biofeedback provides feedback on muscle tension and is used to treat

Answer 26

Thermal (peripheral skin-temperature) biofeedback provides information on blood flow and is a useful treatment for a number of circulatory disorders including those listed in this question.

Respiratory biofeedback is used as a treatment for asthma and other conditions that involve problems related to breathing.

Electroencephalograph (EEG) biofeedback provides information on brain wave activity and is used to treat insomnia, epilepsy, and several other neurological disorders.

Electromyography (EMG) biofeedback provides feedback on muscle tension and is used to treat tension headaches, bruxism, back and neck pain, and incontinence.

Question 27

A response is brought under stimulus control when the person learns to respond in situations in which reinforcement is likely but not in situations in which no reinforcement (or punishment) is likely.

This refers to the use of an intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement.

This is a type of reinforcement in which successive approximations to the desired response are reinforced.

This is a behavioral technique that is used to reduce an undesirable behavior and replace it with a more desirable one.

Answer 27

Stimulus control

Partial reinforcement

Shaping

Overcorrection

Question 28

______________ are ways of organizing and interpreting experiences that develop in early childhood and may be latent until later in life when they are activated by stress.

Answer 28

Schemata

Question 29

Theories suggest that information is stored how in short term memory?

Answer 29

Studies have found that errors in short-term memory usually involve a confusion of letters that sound alike, thereby supporting the theory that information is stored acoustically in short-term memory. Of the letters listed in the responses, only “D” sounds like “T”.

Question 30

Is relaxation training as effective as biofeedback for problems including tension headaches , hypertension, general anxiety, insomnia, and lower back pain. Thermal biofeedback is the treatment of choice for what?
which is characterized by a decrease in blood supply to the fingers. Thermal biofeedback and autogenic training is a treatment for?

Answer 30

The research has shown that, for most disorders that it has been applied to, biofeedback has beneficial effects, but these effects do not exceed those associated with other treatments. For hypertension, biofeedback seems to be about as effective as relaxation training and self-monitoring.

Raynaud’s disease

Migraine headaches

(EMG for incontinence– side note)

Question 31

According to the multi-component model, working memory consists of a central executive and three subsystems – of what? What acts as an attentional control system?

What is responsible for temporarily storing audio-verbal and visuo-spatial information?

What temporarily integrates auditory, visual, and spatial information?

Tasks that rely on what are most adversely affected by increasing age.

Answer 31

the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer.

The central executive is the primary component of working memory and acts as an “attentional control system.” It is responsible for directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information, and coordinating the three subsystems.

phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketch pad.

episodic buffer

executive control is most affected by age– for example forward digit span is okay while backward which relies on executive control and phonological loop is not okay with age.

Question 32

This theory is a brief form of therapy that is usually conducted in groups and is based on the assumption of what three aspects of self control?

based on the assumption that depression is related to six deficits in self-control behavior: What are these deficits?
According to Rehm, depressed people focus too much on negative events. Treatment attempts to alter this by encouraging clients to?

behavioral homework and therapy sessions correspond to three aspects of self control. What are they?

Answer 32

Rehm’s self-control theory: According to Rehm’s self-control theory, individuals with depression selectively attend to negative events and to the immediate consequences of their behavior; make inaccurate internal attributions about their behaviors; and have low rates of self-reinforcement.

3 aspects of self control that increase a person's vulnerability to depression and make it difficult to deal with depressive symptoms.
- self monitoring (selectively attend to negative events and to immediate instead of delayed consequences)
-self evaluation ( inaccurate internal attributions, compare behavior to standards that are rigid and perfectionistic)
Self reinforcing (engage in low rates of self reward and high rates of self punishment)

6 assumptions: selective monitoring of negative events; selective monitoring of immediate (vs. delayed) consequences of behavior; stringent self-evaluative criteria; inaccurate attributions of responsibility; insufficient self-reward; and excessive self-punishment.

recognize the positive events that occur.

self monitoring phase; taught to monitor self statements and positive outcomes, self evaluation phase: taught to set realistic goals and make appropriate attribution to behaviors. self reinforcement phase: reinforce with positive self statements and activities working towards their goals/

Question 33

A father wants to increase his son’s studying and violin practice and, therefore, reinforces each behavior whenever it occurs with a token that can be exchanged later for a desired privilege. After a period of time, the father realizes that his son will never become a violin virtuoso and stops reinforcing the boy’s violin practice. The father can expect which of the following?

Answer 33

Removal of reinforcement from a previously reinforced behavior typically results in an increase in another reinforced behavior. This phenomenon is referred to as “behavioral contrast.”

Question 34

Kohler described insight as?

Kohler is a founder of what type of psychology?

Answer 34

Kohler described insight as a type of relational thinking - i.e., the sudden understanding of relationships among elements of the problem situation.

Kohler was one of the founders of Gestalt psychology, which is based on the assumption that “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” He is probably best known for his work on insight.

Question 35

Response cost is a type of negative reinforcement and involves?

Answer 35

In this situation, money is being taken away following a behavior in order to decrease that behavior. In operant terms, this is referred to as negative punishment.

Response cost is a type of negative punishment. It involves removing a specific stimulus (e.g., money) following a behavior to decrease that behavior.

Question 36

The use of implosive therapy is based on the assumption that:

Answer 36

repeatedly presenting stimuli associated with an undesirable conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus will eventually result in extinction of that response.
Implosive therapy is used to treat phobic responses and involves repeatedly presenting the feared stimulus (conditioned stimulus) in imagination without the unconditioned stimulus so that the feared stimulus no longer produces an anxiety response. It also incorporates psychodynamic principles by embellishing the imagined images with psychodynamic themes. Additional information about implosive therapy is provided in the Learning Theory chapter of the written study materials.

Question 37

When using covert sensitization to reduce a client’s cigarette smoking, a mild electric shock is applied to the client’s hand just as he begins to smoke. In this situation, the electric shock is acting as a(n):

Answer 37

When using covert sensitization, a stimulus that is associated with the undesirable behavior is the conditioned stimulus, which is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits an unpleasant response. In the situation described in this question, the cigarette is the conditioned stimulus and the electric shock is the unconditioned stimulus.

Question 38

To maximize the cueing function of feedback regarding goal achievement

Answer 38

the feedback must be specific (rather than global) in nature

Question 39

The failure to take into account the prior probability of an event when considering its current probability is referred to as:

Answer 39

The base-rate fallacy is the failure to take the base rate into account when making decisions or forming attitudes. An example of the base-rate fallacy is the tendency of people to be more afraid of flying than of driving a car despite the fact that more people are killed on the road than in the sky.

Question 40

Because of a series of misbehaviors, your adolescent daughter has been restricted from participating in a number of activities over the next few months. To increase her positive behaviors, you decide to remove a restriction each time she engages in one of the desired behaviors. This is an example of:

Answer 40

Removal of a stimulus (e.g., a restriction) after a behavior in order to increase that behavior is referred to as negative reinforcement.

Question 41

In an experiment on memory, the researcher utters a string of ten letters within a span of 3 seconds and suddenly stops and asks the participant what the last four letters were. Apparently, this researcher is investigating:

Answer 41

The participant is being asked to recall what he/she has just heard – i.e., to recall information that in sensory memory. The auditory part of sensory memory is referred to as echoic memory.

Question 42

Thorndike came up with what?

This is related to what type of analysis?

Answer 42

In 1898, Edward L. Thorndike published the following observation concerning a cat placed in a cage (puzzle box) containing dangling ropes, levers, and latches: When the cat made the proper response with these manipulanda, the cage door would open and the cat would exit and eat the food placed just outside. Over the following trials, the cat would less and less frequently make irrelevant responses and more and more quickly make the door-opening response, exit, and eat the food.

Over the following decades, Thorndike would develop and evolve his famous law of effect. Here is a modern statement of that law of effect: The results of our actions determine whether we will repeat those actions; some results will cause the frequency of those actions to increase, and other results will cause that frequency to decrease. (The cat will more and more frequently make a response that results in food, and it will less and less frequently make a response that results in water mist sprayed in its face or results in nothing.)

Thorndike’s simple but profound law of effect now serves as the foundation of essentially all behavior analysis, including applied behavior analysis (behavior modification): To increase the frequency of desirable behavior, make sure that behavior results in a reinforcer (reward) or the removal of an aversive condition.

Question 43

Stress inoculation for anger control: Goal?

Answer 43

Stress inoculation for anger control involves the following seven key components: (1) client education about anger, stress, and aggression; (2) self-monitoring of anger frequency, intensity, and situational triggers; (3) construction of a personal anger provocation hierarchy, created from the self-monitoring data and used for the practice and testing of coping skills; (4) arousal reduction techniques of progressive muscle relaxation, breathing-focused relaxation, and guided-imagery training; (5) cognitive restructuring of anger schemas by altering attentional focus, modifying appraisals, and using self-instruction; (6) training behavioral coping skills in communication, diplomacy, respectful assertiveness, and strategic withdrawal, as modeled and rehearsed with the therapist; and (7) practicing the cognitive, arousal-regulatory, and behavioral coping skills while visualizing and role playing progressively more intense anger-arousing scenes from the personal hierarchies.
Goal is to help people deal with stress/anger by increasing their coping skills.

Question 44

For the treatment of hypertension, biofeedback:

Answer 44

The research on biofeedback is far from consistent, but biofeedback does appear to have positive effects for several problems including hypertension.
The research has shown that, for most disorders that it has been applied to, biofeedback has beneficial effects, but these effects do not exceed those associated with other treatments. For hypertension, biofeedback seems to be about as effective as relaxation training and self-monitoring.

Question 45

The research has confirmed that working memory is negatively affected by increasing age. According to Baddeley (1986), this decline is due primarily to:

Answer 45

Baddeley (1986) proposed that working memory consists of three components: a visuospatial sketchpad that maintains visual images, an auditory or phonological loop that maintains auditory or verbal information, and a central executive that directs attention and controls and coordinates the visuospatial and auditory or phonological subsystems. Being familiar with these three components would have helped you identify the correct answer to this question.

Research by Baddeley and others has confirmed that tasks that depend on the central executive - i.e., tasks requiring the reorganization of information or the coordination of information in sensory and auditory channels - are the ones that are most adversely affected by increasing age.

The correct answer is: the negative impact of aging on the central executive.

Question 46

Tolman’s demonstration of latent learning suggests that:

Answer 46

Tolman demonstrated latent learning in his experiments with rats and mazes. Some rats were allowed to freely explore mazes for ten days, but did not display any proficiency in solving the maze until reinforcement was offered for doing so. This phenomenon suggests that, reinforcement is more of a factor in the performance than the learning of a response.

In this case, the student has learned algebra but is not displaying that knowledge until reinforcement (a good grade) is provided for doing so. Therefore, this observation would be congruent with Tolman’s demonstration of latent learning.

Question 47

Skinner found that __________ can lead to “superstitious” behaviors.

Answer 47

Skinner concluded that unusual behaviors may be the result of accidental, noncontingent reinforcement.

When Skinner delivered reinforcement on a random schedule, he found that the behaviors the pigeons were engaged in just prior to being reinforced were often repeated. He referred to these as superstitious behaviors.

Question 48

researcher interested in retention of information in short-term memory shows participants a list of five letters (“C-S-J-Z-M”) and asks them to memorize the list. She then instructs the participants to count backwards by 3’s from 99. After six seconds, 12 seconds, and 18 seconds, the researcher asks the participants to recall the list. The reason why participants are instructed to count backwards is:

Why is the answer NOT retroactive interference?

Answer 48

Information is retained in short-term memory for a very short period unless it is rehearsed or repeated.

Answer C is correct: Having participants count backwards ensures that they do not rehearse the list of letters so that an accurate estimate of the duration of short-term memory can be ascertained.

Retroactive interference occurs when recently learned material interferes with the recall of previously learned material, and it is most likely to occur when recently and previously learned material are similar. Counting backwards is not similar to memorizing letters, so counting backwards will not increase the effects of retroactive interference

Question 49

In working with a client who has received a diagnosis of Dissociative Identity Disorder, a cognitive therapist’s initial goal would be:

Answer 49

In her discussion of the cognitive treatment of Multiple Personality Disorder–now termed Dissociative Identity Disorder, C. G. Fine (in A. Freeman (Ed.), Comprehensive casebook of cognitive therapy, 1992) emphasizes the importance of establishing a therapeutic relationship with the client. Her position is consistent with that of other cognitive therapists who view the development of a therapeutic alliance as a critical initial step in treatment.

As noted above, an initial goal in cognitive therapy is to establish a good working alliance.

Note: Although cognitive therapy is collaborative, the identification of treatment goals would follow the establishment of a working alliance.
Cognitive therapists do look at antecedents (e.g., automatic thoughts as well as aspects of the client’s background that may have contributed to the client’s problem) and consequences. However, this is not an initial step in therapy.

Question 50

Physical guidance is sometimes necessary when using _________ but must be used with caution because it can have negative consequences (e.g., can elicit aggressive or avoidance behaviors).

Answer 50

Physical guidance involves manually guiding the individual through the desired movements.

Physical guidance may be a necessary component of overcorrection in order to ensure that the individual engages in the positive practice that is part of this intervention.

Question 51

Biologically-based phobias are generally viewed as ____________responses, while socially-based phobias are considered to be ___________ responses.

Answer 51

unconditioned

conditioned (learned)

Question 52

Creating an acronym involves:

Answer 52

This is the method used to form an acronym. For example, students sometimes use the acronym “PEMDAS” to remember the order of operations in mathematics - i.e., parentheses, exponents, multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction.

Note:
Acrostic: creating a sentence or rhyme using the first letter of the words included in a list of words. This is the procedure for creating an acrostic. “Please excuse my dear Aunt Sally” is an acrostic for the order of operations in mathematics.

the keyword method: creating an image that combines the images of two or more words

Chunking is useful for maintaining information in short-term memory.

Question 53

Broadbent (1958) used the dichotic listening task to investigate the predictions of his filter theory of attention. This task involved having the listener hear different messages presented simultaneously to each ear and then verbally report what he/she had heard. For example, in a typical study, three digits (e.g., 5, 2, 7) were presented to one ear, while three other digits (e.g., 4, 9, 8) were simultaneously presented to the other ear. The results of these studies confirmed Broadbent’s theory because, in most cases, listeners reported that they had heard which of the following?

Answer 53

Broadbent’s (1958) filter theory of attention was the first comprehensive theory of attention and the first of the “bottleneck” theories. It proposes that a filter (sensory buffer) selects which incoming message will be further processed or attended to on the basis of the physical properties of the message.
a. Incorrect See explanation for response b.

Most participants in Broadbent’s studies reported the information by ear rather than by the order in which they heard the digits, and he concluded that this proved that the physical properties of the message determined if it was attended to or ignored. In other words, in the dichotic listening task studies, the filter allowed the message from one ear to “pass through” before it allowed the message from the other ear to do so, which explained why participants would report the digits heard in one ear first, followed by the digits heard in the other ear.

Question 54

The procedures known as “time-out” and “response cost” share in common which of the following?

Answer 54

Time out involves removing opportunities for reinforcement for a period of time following a behavior to reduce that behavior. Response cost entails removing positive reinforcement (e.g., a desirable activity) following a behavior to eliminate the behavior.

Time out and response cost are both types of negative punishment that involve removing positive reinforcement following a behavior in order to reduce or eliminate that behavior.

Question 55

Sleeping immediately after studying on the night before your 8:00 a.m. exam would help minimize the effects of which of the following on your ability to recall information during the exam?

Answer 55

The phenomena listed in the answers to this question are used to explain why we are unable to recall information.

Retroactive interference occurs when recently learned information interferes with the ability to recall previously learned information. Sleeping between learning information and being tested on that information would eliminate retroactive interference.

Question 56

: To reduce or eliminate a child’s tantrums, which of the following would probably be most effective?

Answer 56

If you have to choose between positive and negative punishment as an intervention, negative punishment (which involves removing a stimulus following a behavior) is generally preferred. Examples of negative punishment include time-out and response cost. Take away Ipad