Lifespan Flashcards
Self Awareness
Self Awareness (realization that you are separate from others)
9- 24 m: recognize self in mirror- and in photos
19 - 30m can describe themselves. -evaluative terms bad/good.
- 2-6: concrete physical characteristics, behaviors and preferences
6 - 10; competencies
10 -12 emotions are directed to self; I would be ashamed of myself; and personality; popular girl
adolescents: inner thoughts and feelings
have an emotional response to bad doing- self conscience is forming
Age adopt occurs to develop a strong bond
“late adoptees” (children placed in adoptive homes after age 4) are able to form strong bonds when the adoption occurs by age 6. Those adopted between the age of 4 to 6. however, they are prone to social and emotional problems and an excessive need for adult attention and over friendliness towards unfamiliar adults.
Onset of the ability to recall the past occurs
Developmental changes in deferred imitation
Physical and behavioral evidence that the nueral mechanisms required for long-term memory recall undergo significant development during the second half or the first year. 75% of infants 6,9, or 11 months can imitate at east one action (remove a mitten) after a delay for 24 hours
Chromosomal Disorders
Autosomal Chromosome Disorders: The individual inherits too many or two few
chromosomes.
Cases per Birth
• Down Syndrome/Trisomy 21 is caused by an extra chromosome 21 and
includes a combination of birth defects. Affected individuals have some degree
of intellectual disability, characteristic facial features, often heart defects, and
other health problems. The severity varies greatly among affected individuals.
1 in 691
1 in 300 births at
age 35
• Trisomy 13 is caused by an extra chromosome 13. Affected individuals have
multiple birth defects and generally die in the first weeks or months of life.
1 in 7,906
• Trisomy 18 is caused by an extra chromosome 18 and the affected individual
also has multiple birth defects and early death.
1 in 3,762
Sex-Linked Chromosomal Disorders: The disorder occurs on chromosome pair
#23 or the sex chromosomes.
Cases per Birth
• Turner Syndrome is caused when all or part of one of the X chromosomes is
lost before or soon after conception due to a random event. The resulting zygote
has an XO composition. Turner Syndrome affects cognitive functioning and
sexual maturation in girls. Infertility and a short stature may be noted.
1 in 2500 females
• Klinefelter Syndrome is caused when an extra X chromosome is present in the
cells of a male due to a random event. The Y chromosome stimulates the growth
of male genitalia, but the additional X chromosome inhibits this development.
The male can have some breast development, infertility, and low levels of
testosterone.
1 in 650 males
Habituation and dishabituation research
3 m. infants begin to exhibit recognition memory for a visual stimuli for up to 24 hours, decrease response to the second presentation for a stimulus for a period of 24 hours. Also demonstrates early recognition and memory
Language
Phoneme: smallest unit of sound that distinguishes one word from the others: p,b.d: pad, pat, bad and bat
Morpheme: Smallest grammatical unit of sound- String one + phoneme: smallest meaningful unit of language: Submarine 2 morphemes (sub-marine) 8 phoneme s,u,b,m,a,r,i,n (e is silent)
Semantics: set of rules to obtain meaning in the morpheme
Syntax: Rules of language to construct sentences (adj. and Adverbs)
Pragmatics: social side, how we communicate effectively and appropriately with others, (turn taking, volume, eye contact)
Physical Maturation in Adolescence
GIRLS: 11 to 12: early; poor self concept, not popular, dissatisfied with physical development, low academic achievement, engage in sexually precocious bx. and drug and alcohol use; Late: “little girls” dissatisfied with physical appearance, outperform academically.
BOYs: 13 to 14 : Early; popular, athletic, dissatisfied body image, increase risk for drug/alcohol. delinquency and dep. Late: childish, attention seeking behaviors, lose confidence,
drinking during pregnancy
structural (physical) abnormalities-organs: CNS, heart, eyes, legs and arms, external genitalia: occurs during the first trimester
2nd and 3rd trimester: behavioral and psychological deficits
-fetal alcohol syndrome, neurodevelopmental disorders
Gender Identity
Fully established by 3 yrs.
-psychosexual: resolution of psychosexual crisis of phallic stage
-Cognitive develop. Theory: Kohlberg.
Gender Identity: 2/3 yrs
Gender Stability:
Gender Constancy: constant over situation/change in external appearance does not matter
-Social Learning Theory: reinforcement and observation: gender stereotypes.
Bem: Shema: Soc. Learning and Cog. Develop.
-
Head Start
IQ gains decline but academic achievement persists into adolescence.
Attachment
- Secure attachment: explores while caregiver is present and may engage with stranger, play with toys and bring toys to caregiver, maybe upset when caregiver leaves and happy when returns
- Ambivalent/ anxious. wary of the situation, particularly the stranger, clings to caregiver rather then play with toys, extremely distressed when caregiver leaves and ambivalent when returns or rushes to caregiver and fails to be comforted when picked up.
- Avoidant/ anxious/insecure : will avoid or ignore mother, show little emotion when the caregiver, leaves/returns. Run away from mother when she approaches, will explore little no matter who is in the room. Stranger is not treated that much different from caregiver-mother, avoidant, impatient and unresponsive or provide too much stimulation
- Disorganized/Disoriented: fear of caregiver, cry during separation separation but avoid caregiver when returns. or may approach caregiver then freeze or fall to the floor–inconsistent way of coping
Theories of emotion
William James: expr of emotions is an interpretation of PHYSIOLOGICAL changes occurred when perceiving stimuli of different emotional values
Schachter and Singer: emotional changes as a reaction to CONTEXT-independent of emotional arousal
Richard Lazurus: (personality)- role of appraisal and coping
Ekman: emotion in behavior: evolutionary history of social signals, facial expression is universal signals (facial action coding system)
Kagan: physiological behavioral response-fear response. Behavior and physiological outcomes of fear learning.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model
(human development in context); process (dynamic
interactions between the developing person and the people, objects, and symbols in their immediate setting or context that take place over time-reciprocal), person ( behavioral predisposition, resources, and demand characteristic -ex family members interact with male vs female), context (below: physical and psychosocial environments where the developing person interacts) and time (operates on multiple levels)
5 environmental Levels:
micro (me: direct interactions)
meso (my messy interactions/intersections-home and school settings)
exso (exists in my social media community: connections in settings that do not contain but directly influence the person)
macro: (culture, economic conditions and political belief-magnificent beliefs)
chrono (chronological change in my lifespan)
Levinson
4 periods
early adult transition -ideal life
the age 30 transition settling down
the Midlife Transition time since birth to time left to live
Only a minority of men and women experience a midlife crisis
Kagan
Behavioral inhibition
behavioral inhibition (degree of approach or withdrawal from new situation) is a temperamental style that has a biological etiology and is relative stable over time, but can be modified by environmental factors High degree of bx inhibition as infants-shy and fearful as toddlers and cautious and introverted as preschoolers- overprotected parenting style increase behavioral inhibition -preventing them from developing coping skills. basic temperament quality of inhibition= CNS- is key determinate of later personality
limitations of Preoperational Stage
egocentrism: trouble understanding another person’s point of view
irreversibility- ( can not understand that an object can belong to two classes) centration; focus on most notable features-
magical thinking
pre casual reasoning
intuitive sporadic and isolated cognitive expressions not tight operations
Adult Attachment Interview
Autonomous-coherent descriptions of their childhood relationships with their parents: consistent despite favorable or unfavorable reactions-missing, needing and depending on others, open and free to explore interview topic -ready flexibility of attention -ease with imperfections can change view of person or event during the interview-suggesting autonomy and objectivity
dismissing, provide positive descriptions but descriptions are not supported or are contradicted- avoidant: low scored on coherence and high on idealization or derogation, high scores on lack of memory in childhood: describes self positively as independent, strong, or normal. Little or no articulation of hurt, distress, or feelings of needing or depending on others downplays negative experience-may described those experiences as making the self stronger. May emphasize activities with parents or object/presents. topics seem foreign and abstract
preoccupied: become angry or confused when describing relationship with their parents -resistant/ambivalent : low coherence, high passive or angry preoccupation with experience of being parents
errors in short-term memory usually involve a confusion of letters that sound alike, thereby supporting the theory that information is stored ____ in short-term memory. Of the letters listed in the responses, only “D” sounds like “T”.
acoustically
development of depth perception
Kinetic cues binocular cues pictorial cues prefer faces by 4 days Moms face - 2 m
Concrete Operational
(7-11/12) Logical Thinking; equilibrium- totality of concepts into a full system
Reversible system: create logic relations to all aspects of a phenomenon
Logic- no longer socialization but a consequence of logo mathematical deduction operations and cooperation are mutual
Decentering: increase attention to transformation
-conservation and horizontal decalage
Research on Divorce
period after divorce is characterized by a “diminished capacity to parent” mothers are more punitive but punishments are often times more inconsistent , both parents becomes more self involved and spend less time with their child,
“sleeper Effect” delay of problematic behaviors in children following divorce of their parents. signs of negative impact of divorce appears when the child reaches adolescence or early adulthood: study found that in girls-those who seem well adjusted following divorce as children are at an increase risk of anti social behavior, low self esteem, early sexual activity and neg attitudes towards marriage as adults
Most at risk for divorce: marrying at a younger age and having a child 7 mos of marriage
Piaget’s stages of Cognitive Development
Sensory Motor (0-1.5/2) Pre-operational (2-7), concrete operational (7-10), Formal operational (11-15/16 +)
Harry Harlow
infant monkey’s preferred physical contact of soft terrycloth over hard wire surrogate
Mirror self recognition: Gyorgy Gergely
the ability to recognize oneself in the mirror (1.5 and 2 yrs.) required a certain level of cognitive development- one pre-requisite is the construction of a “visual feature representation or the typical physicals appearance of the not-directly visible part of the body
__________ refers to the tendency of preoperational children to mentally link certain experiences, whether or not they actually have a causal relationship.
Transduction (also known as transductive and precausal reasoning)
Developmental Milestones
1 -3m. turns head fingers to mouth
4-6 m rolls, 5 m sits on lap and reaches, 6 sits, and stands w help
7-9 m sits, 9 pulls up and stands
10 - 12 stands, walks w help 12m steps 13-15 walks, 16 creeps upstairs
16 - 24 runs, walks upstairs uses spoon
25- 48 jumps, rides bike, dresses handedness
Tolamn pruposed that learning often takes place without being manifested in performance improvements. Thus learning can be ____. Through his studies with rats in mazes, he argued that reinforcement is a important factor in the performance of a response but is not necessary for the learning of that response.
latent
We can learn without candy but we will perform what we learned with candy
PKU is an autosomal recessive disorder, which means that a person with the disorder has inherited one _______ from each parent. A person is homozygous with regard to a PKU when he or she has ________, while a person is heterozygous with regard to PKU when he or she has______ . (“P” refers to a normal allele and “p” refers to the recessive allele for PKU.)
When both parents are heterozygous for PKU (Pp), ___% of their offspring will not have the disorder and will not be carriers of the disorder (PP); ___% will be carriers of the disorder (Pp); and 25% will have the disorder (pp).
recessive allele (p) two recessive alleles for that condition (pp),
two different alleles (Pp). (“P” refers to a normal allele and “p” refers to the recessive allele for PKU.)
25%
50%
25%
separation from parents
prior to 3 mo. little or no consequences
9 m or older; moderate to extreme-sleep and eating problems social withdrawal, increase stranger anxiety physical aggressive or clinginess to new mother
Cognitive Development
Information Processing
cognitive development is the ability to notice, store, and retain info. task specific,
Focus on mental operations and view cognitive development as due to changes in mental capacity and increasing sophistication in the use of relevant rules and strategies. , not interested in stages of development. is continuous/ no critical period.
age and second language learning
ability to achieve native-like pronunciation of a second language when exposure begins in early or middle childhood
adolescents and adults make faster progress (esp. in regards to syntax and morphology)
Theories of Language development:
Chomsky: brains contain a language acquisition device (LAD) that includes a universal
grammar that underlies all human language. children are born with a knowledge of general rules of
syntax that determine how sentences are constructed. Language develops as long as the infant is exposed to it/against Skinner’s idea that language is developed by teaching/imitation and reinforcements.
Interactionist : bio and environmental factors. social interactions-motherese
- extension parents adds to the child’s statement but keeps word order
-extension: parents add information to child’s statement
Language
expressive -output that adher to rule governing order
Syntax- sentence structure
pragmatics: social use of language within a social context
Semantic: The meanings of words
Receptive Language: Auditory comprehensions of messages
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
3 levels
1- preconventional (4 to 10) (based on punishment) punishment obedience act depends on consequence if it is punishment’s that the action is wrong: self interest and reward, goodness/badness -comply with rules to avoid punishment and get reward (man stealing is wrong because he will get a beat down. Stealing is right because his wife will give him a kiss)
–instrumental hedonism more on obtaining rewards than punishments
-Conventional:
good boy/good girl: right action is liked/approved by others. (he should break into the store and then everyone will think he is a good husband: he should not because it is against the law)right and wrong is determined by what other’s think/ want to please others/ social norms and laws-want to be a good member of a group: a good decision is one that gains approval from others or that complies with the law: people care about the effect of their actions on others
-Post Conventional: Social contracts est. for the good of all and can transcend self and social convention. Man should break into the store even if it is against the law b/c the wife needs the drug and her life is more important; man should not violate the principle of the right of property bc this rule is essential for social order: based on concern for others for society as a whole and ethical standards rather than legal-goes beyond convention or what other’s think to a higher universal principle of conduct that may or may not reflect the law. -requires the ability to think abstractly
Stages of prenatal development
3 stages
0-2 wks.-germinal (zygote fertilized ovum)
3-8wk: embryonic
9wk-birth: fetal
Theory of mind
ability to make interferes about another’s representational states and predict behavior (to think about other people’s thoughts) (people have diverse desires, beliefs, access to knowledge, and false beliefs)
2-3yrs. people have different perceptions, emotions ect, that influence behavior
4 to 5 other persons’ thoughts maybe false, people act on false beliefs
after 5 people’s actions are not consistent with true beliefs
Influenced by different factors- engages in pretend play, school adjustment, siblings parent-child interaction
Major Reflexes in New Born
Babinski: toes out and up when tickled
Rooting: head in direction touches
Moro (Startle) flings arms and legs out then towards the body
Stepping walk movement when held upright.
genotype-environment correlations
3 types
passive genotype-environment-encouraged: passively inherit the genes and the environment their parent’s provide: athletically inclined
Evocative- evokes reactions from parents: how the social environment reacts to individuals based on their inherited characteristics” outgoing or shy temperament will affect how he/she is treated by other people.
active- (niche picking) actively seeks out experiences-consistent with predisposition: children who are musically inclined seek out music instructions
Physical Changes in Adulthood,
decrease visual acuity, depth, color Presbyopia-difficulty focusing-starts in mid 40s
Increase light sensitivity,
Deficits: visual search, dynamic vision-(perceive details of moving objects) speed of visual processing
Audition: decreased ability to perceive high frequency
Strength coordination and reaction time. slow up: sensorimotor, perception and cognition
Heredity
polygenetic-height, intelligence,-multiple genes Dominant gene: Homozygous both parents hetero- one parent Genotype: inheritance Phonotype: what you see
Psychosexual Theory
Stages of Psychosexual Development: ID-basic urges needs, desires, largest past of the child’s mind, child behaves in order to meet these pleasure seeking energies and libido becomes the driving force. Ego develops in infancy-conscious, rational. Superego (conscience) 2 to 6 years
Oral (B- 1fixation-dependence, gullibility, sarcasm and orally focused habits
Anal (1-3yrs.) anal retentiveness (stinginess, selfishness, OCD,) anal expulsiveness (cruelty, destructiveness and messiness)
Phallic (3-6) Oedipal Conflict: (pleasure in genital stimulation- develop desire for the opposite sex parent (oedipal complex) as child begins to avoid punishment for these feelings-align with same sex parents(Electra Complex) Superego forms as a results of conflict and resolution sexual exploitations of others
Latency (6 - 12) diffuse not focused, develop social skills over sexual gratification
Genital (12+) produce mature sexual relationships
epigenesis
the emergence of new structures and functions during the course of development. -bidirectional relation between all levels of biological and experiential factors, genetic activity both influences and is influenced by structural maturation
Ex: genes determine the production of protein molecules- form structures of muscles/new cells that activity of these can serve to turn on or off a particular gene there by cause genetic activity. also self produced activity or stimulation for external sources alter the development of sets of cells.
modification in gene expression and are passed on when cells divide: nutrition, stress and teratogens can change gene expressions by switching genes on and off- monozygotic twins gene expression match as infants, had discrepancies as they age-due to different experience- susceptibility to disease and personal characteristics.
perceptual development
Vision
Audio
Pain
Vision: B- 20 ft.– 6 mo. same as normal adult
-kinetic, binocular, pictorial cues for depth perception
Audition: in utero-auditory localization (ability to orient to direction of sound) shortly after birth, disappears btwn 2 to 4 mo. and reappears and improves for the rest of the year. – 3 mo. prefer mom’s voice – Birth distinguish between “a’ and “i” sounds, 3 mo. consonants.
Taste and Sound within hours after birth.
Patterson and colleagues
Causes of aggression
Family contribution to aggression
Interaction model of aggression. children focus on parent’s behavior but recognizes role of coercive exchanges -both act aggressively in order to alter behavior of the other, this pattern escalate over time. aggressiveness is initiated by parent modeling and reinforcement, overtime children acquire aggressive behaviors, the aggressive interactions between child and parents increase in intensity
Learn behavior from parents- do not reinforce prosocial behaviors, use harsh disciple and reward aggression, -Oregon Model of parent management training
Early Childhood: Social and emotional Development
pre operational
The effects of teratogens on fetal development depend on several factors including the type and amount of the substance, the duration of exposure, the time of exposure, and the mother’s physiological condition.
Teratogens can have a negative effect on fetal development during the entire pregnancy, but their consequences are much more severe during critical periods of development when the organ system is growing most rapidly. The critical period varies from organ to organ, but generally occurs within the first _________ of development. (An exception is the central nervous system, which has a critical period that extends into the ___ week of development.)
eight weeks:
16th
Kubler-Ross
denial isolation anger bargaining depression acceptance
The cognitive distortions (errors in reasoning) identified by Beck include ________, ___________ and ________.
The __________refers specifically to the cognitive profile underlying depression (i.e., negative views of oneself, the world, and the future).
__________are ways of organizing and interpreting experiences that develop in early childhood and may be latent until later in life when they are activated by stress.
_____________ are repetitive, automatic self-statements that are elicited by certain stimuli and that are associated with strong emotions
overgeneralization, personalization, and catastrophizing
cognitive triad
Schemata
Automatic thoughts
ages :distinguish fact from fantasy
-research on TV and children
Research on child and TV
3 to 4 yrs. people on TV can see into their homes
-may believe that people who act dead on TV are really dead
4 or 5 commercials are only entertainment- by 8 understand that commercial are to influence you to buy a product
7 to 9 yrs. understanding that they are playing a part.
Violence on TV-increases aggressive behaviors and tolerance
reinforces traditional gender roles, reduce physical activity read less, less family interaction less creative, poorly in school
benefit: vocabulary acquisition, cognitive skills, prosocial attitudes, cognitive skills.
Cartensen’s socioemotional selectivity theory
preference for adults for emotionally close vs novel social partners is related to difference in time perspective: compares motivation and preferences of adults in different age groups; older adults have different preferences than younger, but differences are not due solely to age, but awareness of time left to live-perceive time as unlimited-novel social partners, time as limited prefer emotionally close and have fewer partners as a result
Neo Piagetian
info processing and piagetian approach
biological maturation and experience- individuals actively construct their knowledge, focus on developmental changes, and the impact of the context in which it develops. uneveness is a normal part of development.
Rutter’s indicators
Risk and resiliency in childhood
6 family risk factors 1-marital discord 2-low ses 3- large family size 4-parental criminality, 5-maternal psychopathology, 6- placement outside the home. Resiliency for high risk children reduce risk impact, reduce negative chain reaction, promote self esteem, and self efficacy
Kochanska
different socialization mechanisms that promote conscience development in children with different temperamental traits: focused on fearfulness and parent’s socialization practice:
A number of researchers have found that fearful children score higher on measures of conscience, and Kochanska extended this finding by showing that the relationship between fearfulness and conscience development is affected by caregivers’ socialization practices. Specifically, she found that, among fearful toddlers, conscience development is fostered when the mother uses “gentle discipline.” In contrast, among fearless toddlers, conscience development depends more on a secure mother-child attachment and maternal responsiveness
Congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) is the second-most common cause of an intellectual disability after Down Syndrome and is likely to cause
CMV is a type of herpes virus. Although infection with CMV during adulthood usually produces no or mild symptoms, infection during prenatal development or birth can be life-threatening.
Approximately 10% of infants infected with CMV show symptoms at birth, and about 10 to 15% of infants who are asymptomatic at birth develop symptoms during the first few years of life. Common symptoms include some degree of intellectual disability and hearing and visual impairments.
: hearing and visual impairments
HIV/Aids
can occur during pregnancy, child birth, feeding; HIV positive- 20 to 30% chance
20% receiving treatment exhibit syp. first 2 years,
80% age 3 or later
50% live past 10 yrs
Bem
Gender Schema Theory:
Children develop their own conceptions of the attributes associated with maleness and femaleness -identify a gender, seek out information about gender traits, behaviors and roles, constructivist theory
Bjorklund and Pellegrini
evolutionary psychology
proposed hypothesis:
Prolonged juvenile period(time to develop large brain)
Childhood behaviors prepare child for adulthood-doll playing
psychological mechanisms are domain specific (info processing)- to deal with problems in environment)- mate selection, food acquisition: infants are constrained to process certain info in a core domain; so not to become overstimulated)
evolved adaptive behaviors that are not adaptive now- overeating bc of food scarcity-now obesity
signs of secure attachment
social referencing: 14 to 18 mo
separation anxiety 6 to 8 peaks 14 to 18
stranger anxiety 8 to 10 continues to age 2
Konrad Lorenz
Goslings-critical period
Chess and Thomas
Goodness of Fit
9 Dimensions of Temperament ( Activity level, rhythmicity (regularity of
bio functions), approach/withdrawal (how children deal with new things), adaptability to
situations, intensity of reactions, threshold of responsiveness (how intense a stimulus has to be
for the child to react), quality of mood, distractibility, attention span, and persistence
categorized into 3 general types.
1-easy: can adapt, Calm, Easy to Soothe, Positive Mood
2- Difficult: Reacts Neg. never sits, trouble adapting, neg. mood, cries
3- Slow to warm up: Low activity level, slow to adjust, neg mood
goodness of fit: styles match and comm. and interaction can flow: parents accept temperament
Language development
Cooing 1 syllable (B - 6/8 weeks)
Babbling (4m) intentional vocalization that lacks meaning and comprised of consonant, vowel, sounds and repeated sequence (9m - 14 m; narrow sounds down to native language)
First word (10m to 15m)
Holophrasic (1-2y). one word expression, gesture, and intonations.
Telegraphic (18 - 24m) string of two words to make a sentence, dog go
vocab growth (18 m)
Grammatically Correct Sentences (2 to 5)
Metalinguaistic ( reflect on language) 6 to 7 y
Patterson - coercive family interaction model
coercive exchanges between between parents and child- both act out aggressively to alter each other’s behaviors. imitated by modeling and reinforcement
Aggressive interaction increase intensity
Assimilation and accommodation
egocentric and environmental-organism constantly reshapes its self
adaptation-consists in an equilibrium between accommodation of schemata behavior of things and assimilation of things to the schemata of behavior -driving force to constantly apply it’s schemata to new objects and constantly improve it’s schemata -identity; drive to ideal equilibrium -entire development is striving
Werner: factors that contribute to resiliency in high risk infants.
fewer stressors following birth
stable support from parent or other caregiver
easy temperament
What is habituation?
This occurs when a reinforcer loses its reinforcing value because the individual has received too much reinforcement?
In the context of punishment, ________ occurs when an individual’s response to a neutral (innocuous) stimulus increases after the individual has been exposed to a punishing (aversive) stimulus.
In operant conditioning,_______ occurs when a previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and, as a result, the response decreases or no longer occurs.
habituation which, in the context of punishment, occurs when the punisher loses its effectiveness. Gradually increasing the intensity of a punishment over time is usually ineffective because it leads to habituation.
Satiation
In the context of punishment, sensitization
extinction
Premature, small for Gestational Age Infants
Born less than 37 wks 3.3 lbs can survive.
can catch up with right environment
if weight below 10th percentile for gastro age then infant is small for gatro age -asphyxia, respiratory disease, hypoglycemia, LD and ADHS
Emotions
Basic emotions: interest, happiness, anger, surprise, sadness, and disgust
Self-Conscious emotions, envy, pride, shame, guilt, doubt and embarrassment -developing self concept and social instruction/varies from culture to culture
Alterations in Chromosome Structure
Deletion: part is missing Prader-Willis Syndrome-intellect Disability, obesity, OCD)
Translocation: transfer segment to another chromosome
Inversion: chromosome breaks and reattaches upside down
