Industrial Organizational Psychology Flashcards
Needs theorist of motivation
Cognitive Theory of motivation
Needs: Maslow : 5 basic needs instinctual
Two Factor Theory: lower level needs -hygiene factors-dissatisfiers: when there not necessary unsatisfied: context-surrounds the job- supervisor, working condition, pay. relationship with co workers: if all met does not lead to satisfaction/motivation but will keep them satisfied
High: (motivators/satisfiers); content; what you are actually doing on the job- need to achieve, opportunity. increase satisfaction and motivation. if not met then neutral not dissatisfied; formed the idea of job enrichment
ERG
McCellands” Need Theory : achievement, power, affiliation: High nACH: moderate goals (don’t want to mess-up but not be bored)
Cognitive Theory: how we think about things
-VIE: expectancy (think it is possible to succeed), instrumentality ((operant conditioning: Instrumentality refers to the belief that good performance will be rewarded. expect rewards), and valency (value of the rewards- will how value to you) will succeed on EPPP, reward-license- value-practice independently. money
Equity theory: (effects motivation but how we think of things-does it appear to be fair or not) self inputs (effort put in the job) and self outcome (what you get out of it, pay, rewards) related to other’s output and other’s outcome (Social Comparison)
Goals Setting Approach- set specific goals, intermediate to high level to difficulty, feedback, accept goals–
(Reinforcement Model - people will do things that have rewarding outcome, nothing do not continue, punish then stop)
What is the difference between the Hawthorne effect, Halo effect , central tendency error and contrast effect?
Hawthorne” improvement in job performance resulting from participating in a study
Methods of training are classified as either on the job or off the job techniques. Which is more widely used and what are the advantageous/ disadvantages of both?
What are some of the techniques?
On-the-job techniques are most widely used and have more advantages. They permit active participation, ongoing feedback, have job relevance, and provide maximum opportunities for transfer of training. : job rotation and cross-training
Off the job tech.; provide more opportunity to focus on and practice specific job elements, provide supplemental information, and to use professional trainers, and flexibility to tolerate learning errors. -Disadvantage: low trainee motivation, restricted transfer of training, higher costs.
–vestibule training, Behavioral learning (Bandura/ take downs)
job enrichment impacts? how does this vary?
What is the difference between job enrichment and job enlargement?
Job satisfaction
Varied- impacts more: young educated, skills to do the job, high needs of achievement (nACH)
Anxiety provoking: Low nACH,
enrichment- vertical loading give more higher level jobs
enlargement- horizontal loading-increasing tasks variety of tasks but not responsibility or more autonomous
Both targets upper level needs- reduce boredom.
Why would you be committed to working in an job performance, personal stress and family organization?
affective commitment: emotionally attached to the company
Continuance commitment: social and monetary cost of leaving: lose coworker friendships (no happy hour) and loss of income.
Normative Commitment: feel obligated to stay: only worked for 1 month need to stay on for at least 4 months before leaving.
Affective commitment : I hate this company- more turnover, absenteeism, personal stress and family, job performance,
continuance commitment-turnover.
Aderfer ERG means
Existence, relatedness and growth: not hierarchical at the same level, just because you meet a need you do not move on to the next- like to do creative things, write a book which inspires you to be more creative.
Examples of centralized communication network
The wheel (all subordinates hear command s from one superior, the Y and the Chain (top to bottom flow of communication-one way flow of communication: CEO to Manager to worker) are examples of centralized networks because all communication passes through one person: More efficient for simple tasks and less satisfaction. Decentralized: (circle meet all members of the group, all channels) information flows more freely and does not go only through one person- better for complex tasks and higher job satifiaction
What are the four commonly used data collection methods in organizational development
- interviews, questionnaires/survey (identify values, attitudes and beliefs) , observations (overt behaviors and interactions), and secondary (archival) sources (productivity and performance).
Nadler recommends using multiple methods to ensure that the collected data is complete and unbiased. However, of the four techniques, questionnaires are most useful for collecting quantitative data from a large number of individuals.
Why would you be committed to working in an organization?
affective commitment: emotionally attached to the company
Continuance commitment: social and monetary cost of leaving: lose coworker friendships (no happy hour) and loss of income.
Normative Commitment: feel obligated to stay: only worked for 1 month need to stay on for at least 4 months before leaving.
Affective commitment : I hate this company- more turnover, absenteeism, personal stress and family, job performance,
continuance commitment-turnover.
The ____________ hypothesis is also known as the Yerkes-Dodson Law predicts that, for every activity, there is an optimum level of arousal and that arousal above or below that level has a negative impact on performance. In other words _________ levels of arousal are associated with the _____ levels of performance
inverted-U theory
moderate: highest
What are the types of organizational justice?
Procedural justice refers to the fairness of the ways in which procedures and policies are implemented. perceive how “goods” were allocated- credit for work/ bonus: how much money was set aside by the organization not individually distributed
Interactional justice refers to how people feel about the quality and content of interpersonal interactions. The interpersonal treatment received by individuals as the “justice” is carried out–boss response
Distributive justice refers to the fairness of the outcomes of organizational procedures and policies. Fairness in what they received. the individual: bonus amount
Retributive justice refers to rectifying a wrongdoing in a way that is proportionate to the wrongdoing.
A person-organizational fit is achieved primarily through?
person-organizational fit- match between the employee’s values, needs, preferences ect. and the culture of the organization. -values of the individual match values of the culture of the company : linked to enhanced satisfaction motivation (nACH, High level needs) and organizational commitment (affective, continuance, normative)
What are some formal methods for resolving conflict?
What are the types of arbitration?
Formal methods to resolve conflict: Bargaining (most common)
-Bargaining: (negotiation) effectiveness depends on participant’s overview of the bargaining process as either win lose or win win- ( benefits for both sides are maximized)
-Mediation: Neutral third party (the duck) can offer recommendations but has no formal power- role is to clarify issues and open lines of communication: mediation process involves: setting the stage, problem solving, and achieving a workable agreement
-Arbitration: more authority: controls both process and outcome:
—-Binding arbitration: two side agree in advance to accept the settlement
—-Voluntary: agree only to the arbitration process
—-Conventional: arbitrator is free to choose any settlement solution
—-Final offer arbitration: arbitrator must select one of the final offers made by the disputants.
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How do you evaluate training programs? What are the approaches?
Kirkpatrik’s Four level criteria- reaction, learning, behavior, and results
Utility Analysis: mathematical equation to estimate gains and losses
Formative vs. Summative evaluations-formative (while it is forming) being developed Summative (summed up) after the program has been implemented. determine how much learned and cost
In the context of Holland’s theory of vocational choice, a high degree of differentiation means what?
Holland used the term differentiation to describe the extent to which a person has clearly defined interests. A person who scores high on one of his interest scales and low on all other scales is highly differentiated.
According to Holland, the importance of a good “fit” between a person’s interests and the characteristics of the job is most important for those who are highly differentiated. -
High degree of differentiation suggests an increase predictability of a person environment interaction
A comprehensive needs assessment includes?
A comprehensive needs assessment includes an analysis of the job requirements, the people performing the job, and the goals of the organization.
What are the three types of organizational justice related to fairness in organizational change?
In fairness research, there is a focus on what a person receives (distributive justice) and how perceived “goods” are allocated (procedural justice), and then there is the interpersonal treatment received by individuals as the “justice” is carried out (interactional justice). For the most part, organizational justice is concerned with the ways in which employees decide if they been treated fairly in their jobs and the conditions in which those determinations influence other work-related variables.
What are the effects of poor job satisfaction?
Is job satisfaction a good predictor of job performance?
poor performance-this relationship is weak
job satisfaction DOES NOT mean good job performance
Turnover, absenteeism, and tardiness, strongest relationship is between satisfaction and turnover moderated by unemployment-
Physical and mental health- emotional burnout: lowered self esteem, depression and anxiety
-NO: Job satisfaction is a good predictor if longevity and mental and physical health but not job performance, Good predictor of health but NOT performance
The research indicates that decentralized networks, in which no one individual has greater access to information, are best for what types of tasks. Centralized networks, on the other hand, are better for _____ tasks.
The research indicates that decentralized networks, in which no one individual has greater access to information, are best for_ complex, unstructured tasks that have a number of different solutions. Centralized networks, on the other hand, are better for _simple, structured tasks.
Transformational Leader
What is a transactional leader
What did Ohio figure out?
Transformational leaders recognize the need for change (transformation) and are able to communicate that vision to their followers and gain their commitment to it.
One characteristic of transformational leaders is that they attempt to raise the level of consciousness, awareness, and commitment of their followers and to strengthen their ability to control their own destinies. As well as appeals to morality and justice–using framing: to defining the organizations goals and activities in a way that is meaningful.
–Seek to empower their workers
Use legitimate status to gain compliance and appeals to the self interest of the followers: focuses on stability and change, emphasizes behaviors that are normal related work behaviors and rely on reward and punishment and appeals to the self interest of the workers.
There are 2 basic leadership behaviors 1- considerate: warmth, concern, rapport and support–person oriented 2— Initiating structure: defines, directs, and structures- task oriented
What is criterion deficiency
What is criterion contamination?
the extent to which a criterion measures do not assess all aspects of the ultimate (accurate and complete) criterion
Herbert Simon has proposed that Rational decision-making in organizations most often fails because?
rational decision-making often fails because the decision-maker often “satisfices” (rather than “maximizes”); i.e., he/she chooses the first satisfactory alternative rather than continue to search for the optimal alternative due primarily to inadequate information about the problem and alternative solutions, to a lack of time and money, and to limits on the decision-maker’s own intelligence.
Krumboltz’s social learning theory of career decision making is based off of what theory? and claims that a person’s career decisions are influenced by what 4 factors? Unlike the other theories, Krumboltz theory did not focus on matching an individual to their job but on _______________
reinforcement theory and the work of Bandura
genetic
environmental conditions and events
learning experiences,
task approach skills that are the result of the interact between the other three
Continual learning and self development. Krumboltz proposes that career decisions are based on what the individual has learned and that career decisions are based primarily on what we have learned, especially from our interactions with others
What are the worker characteristics of job satisfaction in relation to disposition, age, race/ethnicity, Gender, Occupational Level, and life satisfaction?
Disposition: there is a genetic factor to job satisfaction
Age: U shaped relationship where job satisfaction is high when people begin their career, decreases with and rises with increased age.
Race/Ethnicity: minorities report lower levels of job satisfaction compared to whites. Most consistent with African Am. compared to Whites.
Gender: similar However, women less when experience exploitation, in lower level positions, and comparable worth
Occupational level: increases with occupational level
Life Satisfaction: positive correlation between job and life satisfaction: why mostly likely income, personality traits, and other variables
Name some different methods used for job selection
General Mental Cognitive Ability tests:
Highest validity coeff.
Job Knowledge Test:
Personality Tests:
Interest Inventory: susceptible to faking- more valid for predicting job choice, satisfaction and persistence.
Biodata: best predictor of future behavior is past behavior Biographical Information Blank: a empirically derived form. that contained multiple choice questions that assess history , family history health and attitudes - lacks face validity - applicants may think it is an invasion of privacy
interviews: lack reliability and validity- can be improved when interviewer is trained to observe interpersonal skills, structured interview is used, or in combination with another predictor (GMA). Behavior descriptions interviews focus on an actual situation in the past instead of a hypothetical situation. multiple interviews thought single interviewer with a structured interview is better
Work Job Samples: intdividual must perform the task similar to or identical to that on the job- mechanical in addition already skilled workers, this can also predict trainability for newly skilled or untrained workers. - in this situation, workers will be included in structured learning and evaluation. –trainable tests. -Also, work sample use a realistic job preview_ video or written job description which reduces unrealistic expectations of the job- increase commitment and satisfaction and lower turnover rates.
Assessment centers
What is social affiliation?
Social facilitation occurs when performance on a task is improved as the result of the presence of other people.
According to Locke and Latham’s goal setting theory, employee’s are likely to accept goals assigned to them when?
And that ____ goals produce higher levels of ? and this is strongest for ______ tasks.
Goals setting and feedback are superior to improving ____ then either goal setting or feedback alone.
Employees are likely to accept goals assigned to them when they consciously accept and then are committed to those goals.
Moderate goals produce higher levels of productivity and this is strongest for simple tasks. The less complex the task, the stronger the link between goal difficulty and productivity .
productivity
Commitment: goal performance is strongest when people are committed, and even more so when said goals are difficult. Given the commitment to a goal, if an individual discovers their performance is below that which is required, they are likely to increase their effort or change their strategy in order to attain it. When we are less committed to goals – particularly more challenging goals – we increase the likelihood of giving up.
Clarity: Specific goals put you on a direct course. When a goal is vague, it has limited motivational value. Goal clarity was positively related to overall motivation and satisfaction in the workplace. Set clear, precise and unambiguous goals that are implicit and can be measured. When a goal is clear in your mind, you have an improved understanding of the task at hand.
-Goals must be challenging yet attainable. Challenging goals can improve performance through increased self-satisfaction, and the motivation to find suitable strategies to push our skills to the limit. Conversely, goals that are not within our ability level will not be achieved, leading to feelings of dissatisfaction and frustration. We are motivated by achievement and the anticipation of achievement. If we know a goal is challenging yet believe it is within our abilities to accomplish, we are more likely to be motivated to complete a task.
Taks complexity: Overly complex tasks introduce demands that may mute goal-setting effects. Overly complex goals that lie out of our skill level may become overwhelming and negatively impact morale, productivity, and motivation. The timescale for such goals should be realistic. Allowing sufficient time to work toward a goal allows opportunities to reassess the goal complexity, whilst reviewing and improving performance. Even the most motivated of people can become disillusioned if the task’s complexity is too great for their skills.
Goal setting is more effective in the presence of immediate feedback
Of Mc Clellenad’s needs theory, Need for Achievement nACH was studied the most. Research found that? choose what types of tasks and why? They prefer frequent concrete feedback and view money as what?
Also, they prefer personal responsibility and recognition which makes them good____ and not _____? Cross cultural studies show that nACH is related to economic growth
People high on nACH prefer moderate difficulty and risk because success on these tasks depends more on effort than uncontrollable factors.
require frequent concrete feedback and money is viewed as a source of feedback.
They make good salespeople and entrepreneurs but poor managers.
What are the Motivation Theories?
MOTIVATION THEORIES
-Maslow’s Needs Theory (motivation is the result of 5 basic needs)
-ERG Theory: reduced Maslow’s theory to existence, relatedness, and growth- people are motivated by more than one need at a time.
McCelland’s Need Theory: three needs act as motivators- Need for achievement (goal and task), Need for power (to control or influence others), need for affiliation (need to est. warmth and close relationships.
Herzberg’s two factor theory which looks at motivation and satisfaction: separates satisfaction and dissatisfaction_ lower level needs (hygiene: context/pay): dissatisfaction when unfulfilled little effect on satisfaction/motivation: High-level (motivators: responsibility): increase job satisfaction and motivation no dissatisfaction when unfilled
-Goal Setting Theory: motivated to achieve own personal goals
-Equity Theory: social comparison on motivation: input and output ratio
-Expectancy (VIE) Theory: motivation is a pultiplicative function of expectancy (high effort= successful performance) Instrumentality (good performance leads to reward) positive valence (rewards have value)
-Social Cognitive Theory: : self regulation of behavior- goal setting, self observation (monitor goals behavior), self eval, self reaction
THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
-Fielder’s contingency theory: effectiveness is based off of leadership style (LPC) and favorableness (influence and power a leader has) of the situation
-Cognitive Resource Theory’s stress and cognitive resources
- Path Goal Theory (House’s): effective leader can help a subordinate find a path that leads to their goals.
-Hersey and Blanchard: situational leadership model ( telling, selling, participative, delegating)
-Vroom-Yetton-Jargo Normative (DECISION) making model-11 situation factors and 5 decision strategies ( A1 Autocratic; make decisions alone, (AII) considers input from employees. (CI (consult) explains problem individually and makes decision: CII explains as a group, but make decision: G, Group- explains to group and group decides.
Transformational leaders and transactional leaders
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According to Fiedler’s contingency model the most effective leader is determined by what?
Fiedler’s contingency model distinguishes between two types of leaders - high-LPC and low-LPC. High LPC leaders are person-oriented and are concerned primarily with maintaining good interpersonal relationships, while low LPC leaders are task-oriented and are most concerned about successful task performance.
Fiedler’s contingency model predicts that task-oriented (low-LPC) leaders are most effective when the situation is extreme - that is, when the leader has either low or high situational control, while person-oriented (high-LPC leaders) are most effective when situational control is moderate. As defined by Fiedler, situational control is determined by three factors: leader-member relations, task-structure, and leader position power
What are some different elements for learning in training
identical elements: Transfer of training: similarity between the learning and performance environment
Overlearning- practice past the point of mastery
elaborative rehearsal: making new information meaningful by relating it to previously acquired information
The research has shown that, after participating in a group discussion, group members are likely to advocate more extreme positions than they would have advocated if they had not participated in the discussion. This phenomenon is referred to as?
What is the difference between this concept and risky shift?
group polarization.
The risky shift is like group polarization but includes only the “risky” end of the decision continuum.
What is the deepest level of Schien’s levels of Organizational Culture? And what are the cognitive defense mechanisms of the group?
First- observable artifacts-dress code, stories and rituals and annual reports
Second- Espoused values and beliefs (organizational norms, goals and ideologies)
third deepest- basic underlying assumptions- unconscious taken for granted perceptions, beliefs, thoughts and emotions - defense mechanism and
can impede change
The person-organization fit refers to the match between the employee’s values, needs, preferences, etc. and the culture of the organization. A good P-O fit has been linked to several benefits including? A good P-O fit is achieved primarily by?
enhanced satisfaction, motivation, and organizational commitment and reduced stress and turnover.
Selection and socialization have been identified as the primary opportunities for ensuring a good person-organization fit (e.g., Chatman, 1991): Selection helps identify individuals whose characteristics match the characteristics of the organization, while socialization (e.g., behavioral modeling by and feedback from the supervisor, participation in work-related social events (ice cream party)) helps employees acquire the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that are compatible with the organization’s culture.
What is situational specificity
Occurs when validity information is specific to a particular circumstance and does not generalize to other circumstances.
Organizational Development interventions are implemented mostly to improve productivity but other reasons include responsiveness to customers, enhancing companies competitiveness and employee moral.
What is a process consultant? What behaviors do they target?
Another Organizational Development intervention self-managed work teams (SMWTs): what are they? What is the difference between SMWT, Quality-Work-Life Programs (QWL) and Quality Circles (QC) and Total Quality Management (TQM)
Process consultants focus on processes (interactions) between people and how these processes interfere with the achievement of their goals. They alter processes that are undermining their ability to interact with one another.
-behaviors that relate to communication, leadership, decision-making, conflict resolution, and member’s roles in groups.-Gary_
SMWTs are made up of employees who work together as a unit, with leadership usually rotating from one member to another. Members of SMWTs make hiring, budget, and other decisions that were previously made by managers.
-QWL: emphasizes employee empowerment, Unions, EAP-lower-level employees
Quality circles are an example of parallel structures. -(QC) Quality circles consist of small groups of 13-15 employees who volunteer to meet periodically, usually once a week for an hour or so, to identify and solve productivity problems. These group members make recommendations for change, but decisions about implementation of their proposals are reserved for management. Research has shown that parallel structures and quality circles do play an important role in employee productivity and job satisfaction.
SMWT_ autonomous group that makes management decisions.
TQM: A core definition of total quality management (TQM) describes a management approach to long-term success through customer satisfaction. In a TQM effort, all members of an organization participate in improving processes, products, services, and the culture in which they work. (Designer chairs)
Expectancy theory predicts that motivation is a function of three beliefs: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence
What does the beliefs Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence refer to?
Expectancy: refers to the belief that good performance will be rewarded.
Instrumentality: performance leads to a reward
Valence: the reward has value
Do peer evaluations provide accurate and useful information?
Peer evaluations are not often used in organizations, but the research indicates that they can provide accurate and useful information and indicate a promotion
Peer evaluations have been found valid for certain purposes and appear to be particularly accurate in predicting training success and subsequent promotions.
The research suggests that peer and supervisor ratings agree more with each other than they do with self-ratings.
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model distinguishes between 4 leadership styles that are characterized by different combination of task and relationship orientation: appropriate style depends on subordinates______ which is a combination of ability and willingness to take responsibility. what are the 4 leadership styles and what is the appropriate style for each?
followers who are comparatively low on maturity should benefit from high structuring combined with low consideration. As the follower gains maturity, the need for leader structuring declines, but the need for supervisory supportiveness actually increases. At the highest levels of follower maturity, the need for both leader structuring and social supportiveness declines further, such that at the highest levels of follower maturity, leader structuring and consideration are irrelevant to follower performance
Telling
Selling
Participating
Delegating
- Telling: high task(directive), low relationship style (supportive): low ability and low willingness: Leader A leader’s primary concern lays with the task delivery and less with the personal needs of the subordinates. Typical behaviour for a S1 leadership style, is offering step-by-step instructions, clear explanation of the consequences of non-performance and close supervision. In such a situation, it is important that the task is clearly defined and the stages of the process are easy to follow. This is important because the leader believes that the follower (R1) either does not know what to do or is unwilling and requires therefore a certain degree of coercive power. (R1) A follower with a R1-status is unable to complete the required task, because they do not possess the necessary set of skills to perform well. Moreover, they are either unwilling to deliver the required task or lack self-confidence
- -Selling: high task/directive and high relationship/supportive = low ability and high willingness: The leader’s style should therefore be concerned with increasing the confidence and skills of followers so that they can ultimately take on more responsibility for their actions. this style is necessary for D2 followers, who used to be highly enthusiastic in the beginning but who lost confidence because their competences are failing them: follower unable to perform a certain task, but in contrast to a R1 follower, willing to try anyway. In other words: they are motivated to attempt the task even though they lack the skills, knowledge and/or ability to do so. This follower style is often seen with new employees who are keen to impress their supervisor, but still lack the work experience to be productive right from the start.
- Participating: Low task (directive) and High relationships (supportive) = High ability Low willingness (unwilling/ low commitment) likely to be able to perform well on their task, since they have developed the necessary skill set. The problem, however, is that they are unwilling to do so. The reason for this behavior are twofold: followers could be un-motived to comply with the leader’s request or could (still) be nervous about performing the task without enough support and encouragement from the leader
- -Delegating: Low task (directive) and Low relationship (supportive) = High Ability and High Willingness they are ready, able and willing to perform. This means that followers are experienced at the required task and comfortable with their own ability to do it well and independently. They are able and willing to not only do the task, but to take responsibility for it
What correlates to job satisfaction?
Job satisifaction refers to the employee’s cognitive, affective, and evaluative reations to his or her job:
Job satisfaction is an adequate predictor of good health but not job performance
As predicted by the Taylor-Russell tables, the incremental validity of a selection test that has a validity coefficient of .50 will be the greatest when:
the selection ratio is .05 and the base rate is .50.
The Taylor-Russell Tables provide information on a test’s incremental validity for various combinations of base rates, selection ratios, and validity coefficients.
A test with even a low or moderate validity coefficient can improve decision-making accuracy when the selection ratio is low (e.g., .05) and the base rate is moderate (near .50).
What type of consultant would help board members, staff, and teachers identify and modify the ways in which their behaviors are inconsistent with their goals.
Process consultants focus on processes (interactions) between people and how these processes interfere with the achievement of their goals. Process consultation focuses on identifying and altering the overt behaviors that are interfering with normal social processes. It is based on the assumption that behavior change is the priority and precedes attitude change.
