social influence Flashcards

Question

task difficulty: PEEL, evidence

Answer 1

For example, Asch altered the (comparison) lines (e.g. A, B, C) making them more similar in length. Since it was harder to judge the correct answer conformity increased.

Answer 2

When the task is difficult, we are more uncertain of our answer so we look to others for confirmation. The more difficult the task the greater the conformity.

Answer 3

This suggests that informational social influence is a major mechanism for conformity when the situation is ambiguous and the individual does not have enough of their own knowledge or information to make an informed decision independently, and so has to look towards others.

Answer 4

High internal validity - There was strict control over extraneous variables, such as timing of assessment and the type of task used. The participants did the experiment before without confederates to see if they actually knew the correct answer, thus removing the confounding variable of a lack of knowledge. This suggests that valid and reliable ‘cause and effect’ relationships can be established, as well as valid conclusions. Lab experiment - Extraneous and confounding variables are strictly controlled, meaning that replication of the experiment is easy. Successful replication increases the reliability of the findings because it reduces the likelihood that the observed findings were a ‘one-off’. Ethical issues - The researchers breached the BPS ethical guideline of deception and consequently, the ability to give informed consent. However, the participants were debriefed. Ethical issues do not threaten the validity or reliability of findings, but rather suggest that a cost-benefit analysis is required. Supports normative social influence - participants reported that they conformed to fit in with the group, so it supports the idea of normative influence, which states that people conform to fit in when privately disagreeing with the majority.

Answer 5

Lacks ecological validity - it was based on peoples’ perception of lines and so the findings cannot be generalised to real life as it does not reflect the complexity of real life conformity i.e. where there are many other confounding variables and majorities exert influence irrespective of being a large group. Lacks population validity due to sampling issues - For example, the participants were only American male undergraduates, and so the study was subject to gender bias, where it is assumed that findings from male participants can be generalised to females (i.e. beta bias). Ethical issues: - there was deception as participants were tricked into thinking the study was about perception rather than compliance so they could not give informed consent. - There could have been psychological harm as the participants could have been embarrassed after realising the true aims of the study. Lacked validity - The social context of the 1950s may have affected results. For example, Perrin and Spencer criticised the study by stating that the period that the experiment was conducted in influenced the results because it was an anti-Communist period in America when people were more scared to be different i.e. McCarthyism. Thus, the study can be said to lack temporal validity because the findings cannot be generalised across all time periods.

Answer 6

24 American male undergraduate students

Answer 7

To investigate how readily people would conform to the social roles in a simulated environment, and specifically, to investigate why ‘good people do bad things’.

Answer 8

The basement of the Stanford University psychology building was converted into a simulated prison. American student volunteers were paid to take part in the study. They were randomly issued one of two roles; guard or prisoner. Both prisoners and guards had to wear uniforms. Prisoners were only referred to by their assigned number. Guards were given props like handcuffs and sunglasses (to make eye contact with prisoners impossible and to reinforce the boundaries between the two social roles within the established social hierarchy). No one was allowed to leave the simulated prison. Guards worked eight hour shifts, while the others remained on call. Prisoners were only allowed in the hallway which acted as their yard, and to the toilet. The guards were allowed to control such behaviour, in order to emphasise their complete power over the prisoners! No physical violence was permitted, in line with ethical guidelines and to prevent complete overruling. The behaviour of the participants was observed.

Answer 9

Identification occurred very fast, as both the prisoners and guards adopted their new roles and played their part in a short amount of time, despite the apparent disparity between the two social roles. Guards began to harass and torment prisoners in harsh and aggressive ways – they later reported to have enjoyed doing so and relished in their new-found power and control. Prisoners would only talk about prison issues (forgetting about their previous real life), and snitch on other prisoners to the guards to please them. This is significant evidence to suggest that the prisoners believed that the prison was real, and were not acting simply due to demand characteristics. They would even defend the guards when other prisoners broke the rules, reinforcing their social roles as prisoner and guard, despite it not being real. The guards became more demanding of obedience and assertiveness towards the prisoners while the prisoners become more submissive. This suggests that the respective social roles became increasingly internalised.

Answer 10

Real life applications – This research changed the way US prisons are run e.g. young prisoners are no longer kept with adult prisoners to prevent the bad behaviour perpetuating. Beehive-style prisons, where all cells are under constant surveillance from a central monitoring unit, are also not used in modern times, due to such setups increasing the effects of institutionalisation and over exaggerating the differences in social roles between prisoners and guards. Debriefing – participants were fully and completely debriefed about the aims and results of the study. This is particularly important when considering that the BPS ethical guidelines of deception and informed consent had been breached. Dealing with ethical issues in this way simply makes the study more ethically acceptable, but does not change the quality (in terms of validity and reliability) of the findings. The amount of ethical issues with the study led to the formal recognition or ethical guidelines so that future studies were safer and less harmful to participants due to legally bound rules. This demonstrates the practical application of an increased understanding of the mechanisms of conformity and the variables which affect this.

Answer 11

Lacks ecological validity - The study suffered from demand characteristics. For example, the participants knew that they were participating in a study and therefore may have changed their behaviour, either to please the experimenter (a type of demand characteristic) or in response to being observed (participant reactivity, which acts as a confounding variable). The participants also knew that the study was not real so they claimed that they simply acted according to the expectations associated with their role rather genuinely adopting it. This was seen particularly with qualitative data gathered from an interview with one guard, who said that he based his performance from the stereotypical guard role portrayed in the film Cool Hand Luke, thus further reducing the validity of the findings Lacks population validity – The sample only consisted of American male students and so the findings cannot be generalised to other genders and cultures. For example, collectivist cultures, such as China or Japan, may be more conformist to their prescribed social roles because such cultures value the needs of the group over the needs of the individual. This suggests that such findings may be culture-bound! Ethical issues: Lack of fully informed consent due to the deception required to (theoretically) avoid demand characteristics and participant reactivity. However Zimbardo himself did not know what was going to happen, so could not inform the participants, meaning that there is possible justification for a breach of ethical guidelines. Psychological harm – Participants were not protected from stress, anxiety, emotional distress and embarrassment e.g. one prisoner had to be released due to excess distress and uncontrollable screaming and crying. One prisoner was released on the first day due to showing signs of psychological disturbance, with a further two being released on the next day. This study would be deemed unacceptable according to modern ethical standards.

Answer 12

This is when a person believes that someone else will take responsibility for their own actions. When a person shifts from an autonomous state to the agentic state, it is called an Agentic Shift. Therefore, agency theory is the idea that people are more likely to obey when they are in the agentic state as they do not believe they will suffer the consequences of those actions. This is because they believe that they are acting on behalf of their agent.

Answer 13

People are more likely to obey someone if they are seen as credible in terms of being morally good/right, and legitimate In Milgram’s study, the people saw the experimenter as legitimate as they knew he was a scientist and therefore is likely to be knowledgeable and responsible - this is called expert authority.

Answer 14

- A person is more likely to obey someone wearing a uniform -A person is more likely to obey someone in a location linked to higher status and legitimacy -A person is more likely to obey when they are less able to see the negative consequences of their actions and are in closer proximity to the authority figure.

Answer 15

— Some researchers have suggested that the participants did not acknowledge the electric shocks as real. For example, Gina Perry reviewed the interview tapes and found that a significant number of participants raised questions about the legitimacy of the electric shocks. However, quantitative data gathered by Milgram directly suggested that 70% of participants believed that the shocks were real - these findings appear plausible when considering that 100% of the females used in Sheridan and King’s study administered real electric shocks to puppies. This suggests that although the findings were certainly surprising, they were also likely to be accurate. — Milgram’s variations, and particularly the removal of a uniform as a situational variable, may have lacked validity i.e. they did not measure what they intended to measure. For example, even Milgram himself admitted that the use of a ‘normal citizen’ in place of the confederate with a lab coat, may have been too obvious a substitution. Therefore, decreased obedience in this condition may have been due to the participants behaving according to their expectations and so the results were affected by demand characteristics.

Answer 16

+ Agentic state and legitimacy of authority theories can be used to successfully explain several real-life examples of obedience towards destructive authority figures. Kilham and Mann put forward the example of the My Lai Massacres, whereby thousands of American soldiers pillaged through Vietnamese villages and murdered civilians. This can be explained in terms of agent state theory, where the soldiers were simply obeying orders from their Generals and so shifted responsibility for their actions onto them. This authority was legitimate (justified) due to their high position within the Army’s social hierarchy ranks. Therefore, this suggests that both theories are valid explanations of obedience.

Answer 17

Randomly selected participants - 40 male volunteers.

Answer 18

To observe whether people would obey a figure of authority when told to harm another person i.e. evaluating the influence of a destructive authority figure.

Answer 19

A participant given the role of ‘teacher’ and a confederate given the role of ‘learner’. This was decided through a random allocation. Participant had to ask the confederate a series of questions. Whenever the confederate got the answer wrong, the participant had to give him an electric shock, even when no answer was given. The electric shocks incremented by 15 volts at a time, ranging from 300V to 450V, where 330V was marked as ‘lethal’. Participants thought the shocks were real when in fact there were no real shocks administered, and the confederate was acting. The shocks were falsely demonstrated to be real prior to the start of the study. Participants were assessed on how many volts they were willing to shock the confederate with. The experimenter’s role was to give a series of orders / prods when the participant refused to administer a shock, which increased in terms of demandingness for every time the participant refused to administer a shock. The same 4 prods were used each time when participants refused to administer the shocks. The first 3 demanded obedience to science, whereas the final prod demanded obedience specifically to the confederate.

Answer 20

- All participants went up to 300V and 65% went up to 450V. - No participants stopped below 300V, whilst only 12.5% stopped at 300V, showing that the vast majority of participants were prepared to give lethal electric shocks to a confederate.

Answer 21

participants obeyed more when the experimenter was in the same room i.e. 62.5%. This was reduced to 40% when the experimenter and participant were in separate rooms, and reduced to a further 30% in the touch proximity condition i.e. where the experimenter forcibly placed the participant’s hand on the electric plate.

Answer 22

Participants obeyed more when the study was conducted at a prestigious university i.e. Stanford. This is because the prestige of such a location demands obedience and also may increase the trust that the participant places in the integrity of the researchers and their experiments.

Answer 23

Participants obeyed more when the experimenter wore a lab coat. A person is more likely to obey someone wearing a uniform as it gives them a higher status and a greater sense of legitimacy. It was found that obedience was much higher when the experimenter wore a lab coat as opposed to normal clothes. However, demand characteristics were particularly evident in this condition, with even Milgram admitting that many participants could see through this deception.

Answer 24

Debriefing - The participants were thoroughly and carefully debriefed on the real aims of the study, in an attempt to deal with the ethical breach of the guideline of protection from deception and the possibility to give informed consent. In a follow up study conducted a year later, 84% of participants were glad they were part of the study and 74% felt as if they learned something. This suggests that the study left little or no permanent or long-term psychological harm on participants. Real life applications — This research opened our eyes to the problem of obedience and so may reduce future obedience in response to destructive authority figures e.g. obedience has resulted in negative social change - the Nazis obeyed orders and as a result, Hitler managed to get what he wanted and what he wanted was not what the majority of people wanted. Such research also gives an insight into why people were so willing to kill innocent Jews simply when told to, and so highlights how we can all easily be victims to such pressures. A general awareness of the power of such influences is useful in establishing social order and moral behaviours. High in internal validity — Gina Perry reviewed the interview tapes and found that a significant number of participants raised questions about the legitimacy of the electric shocks. However, quantitative data gathered by Milgram directly suggested that 70% of participants believed that the shocks were real - these findings appear plausible when considering that 100% of the females used in Sheridan and King’s study administered real electric shocks to puppies. This suggests that although the findings were certainly surprising, they were also likely to be accurate. Highly replicable – The procedure has been repeated all over the world, where consistent and similar obedience levels have been found. For example, in a replication of Milgram’s study using the TV pseudonym of Le Jeu de la Mort, researchers found that 85% of participants were willing to give lethal electric shocks to an unconscious man (confederate), whilst being cheered on by a presenter and a TV audience. Such replication increases the reliability of the findings. External validity has been established by supporting studies – Hofling et al (1966) observed the behaviour of doctors and nurses in a natural experiment (covert observation). The researchers found that 95% of nurses in a hospital obeyed a doctor (confederate) over the phone to increase the dosage of a patient’s medicine to double what is advised on the bottle. This suggests that ‘everyday’ individuals are still susceptible to obeying destructive authority figures.

Answer 25

Ethical issues: - There was deception and so informed consent could not be obtained. This deception was justified by the aim of avoiding demand characteristics/ the ‘Please-U’ effect/ participant reactivity (where participants change their behaviour in response to knowing that they are being observed). - There was psychological harm inflicted upon the participants - They showed signs of psychological and physiological distress such as trembling, sweating and nervous laughter. Such findings were also replicated in the Jeu de la Mort study, showing that these results were not simps due to participant variables/differences. - It raises a socially sensitive issue – Milgram’s findings suggest that those who are responsible for killing innocent people can be excused because it is not their personality that made them do this, but it is because of the situation that they were in and the fact that it is difficult to disobey – some may strongly disagree with this, and especially the judicial system, where (except in viable cases of diminished responsibility), individuals are expected to take moral responsibility for their actions.\ - Lack of internal validity – The experiment may have been about trust rather than about obedience because the experiment was held at Stanford University. Therefore, the participants may have trusted that nothing serious would happen to the confederate, especially considering the immense prestige of the location. Also when the experiment was replicated in a run-down office, obedience decreased to a mere 20.5%. This suggests that the original study did not investigate what it aimed to investigate. - Lack of ecological validity – The tasks given to participants are not like those we would encounter in real life e.g. shooting somebody in the face is different from flicking a switch, meaning that the methodology lacks mundane realism, producing results which are low in ecological validity.

Answer 26

internal explanation i.e personality factors/individual reasons why someone obeys.

Answer 27

is when you believe that people should completely obey or submit to their authority figures, and suppress their own beliefs. This means that they believe they should strictly submit to those higher in authority but those who are perceived as lower than the individual should also submit to the individual.

Answer 28

it was to measure the different components that made up the authoritarian personality.

Answer 29

The psychodynamic theory, which suggests adult personality traits and attitudes stem from childhood influences, especially from parents.

Answer 30

It causes the child to idolize their parents on a surface level but unconsciously fear and despise them, leading to displaced anger.

Answer 31

— There are serious methodological issues associated with the F-scale, as suggested by Greenstein. This scale is particularly susceptible to acquiscence bias, which describes the phenomenon of respondents always responding in the same way using the scales provided, regardless of the content shown in the scales. Therefore, this suggests that the findings produced by the F-scale may be lacking in validity and reliability. — The Authoritarian Personality may not be able to explain all cases of obedience across the whole political spectrum, according to Christie and Jahoda. This is because the F-scale technically measures the likeness between an individual to Fascism (far-right on the political scale), but left-wing authoritarianism is also present, such as Bolshevism, and has been ignored by the current theory. Since there are more similarities between the two ends of these spectrums than differences, most notably a large emphasis on utmost respect for legitimate authority, this suggests that Fascist-like views can be found across the whole spectrum, which the Authoritarian Personality does not account for. — The Authoritarian Personality has little ecological validity because it cannot explain many real-life examples of mass obedience. For example, it is very unlikely that the whole German population during Nazi occupation had an Authoritarian Personality, but rather many shared the same struggles in life and displaced their fear about the future onto a perceived ‘inferior’ group of people, through the process of scapegoating. This means that such a theory is a limited explanation for some examples of obedience.

Answer 32

The locus of control is a measurement of an individual’s sense of control over their lives

Answer 33

conform and obey less

Answer 34

because they take more responsibility for their own actions

Answer 35

conform and obey more

Answer 36

because they believe that the majority of their life events are beyond their control

Answer 37

+There is research evidence supporting the link between locus of control and obedience. For example, Atgis (1998) conducted a meta-analysis of studies considering locus of control and likeliness to conform. It was found that those who scored highest on the eternal locus of control were more easily persuaded and more likely to conform. Therefore, having an external locus of control leads to a greater rate of conformity. + There is also research evidence supporting the link between locus of control and social responsibility. For example, Oliner and Oliner (1988) interviewed two groups of non- Jewish people who had lived through the holocaust. They also interviewed 406 people who protected and rescued Jews from Nazis and 126 people who did not. The rescuers were found to have an internal locus of control and also scored higher on measures of social responsibility. However, this also draws doubt over the direct link between locus of control and resistance to obedience - perhaps measures of social responsibility are more important/influential?

Answer 38

— The locus of control explanation is only valid for novel situations, as suggested by Rutter. Previous experiences are always more influential than LOC when an individual is making a decision as to how to act. This means that LOC is a limited explanation for only some cases of obedience.

Answer 39

Social support plays a crucial role in reducing conformity. As demonstrated by Asch, when even one person in a group resists the majority and gives the correct answer, it significantly decreases conformity levels in others. This effect occurs because the dissenting answer not only breaks the majority’s unanimity but also supports the participant’s true perception, providing both social support and an alternative source of information. This reinforcement bolsters the participant’s confidence in their own judgment, allowing them to resist the pressure to conform. Thus, resistance to obedience here is facilitated by both normative social influence (the desire to fit in) and informational social influence (the reliance on others for guidance).

Answer 40

+This idea is also supported by a variation of Milgram’s study, where there were two other participants (who were actually confederates) and disobeyed the experimenter. The presence of the other person caused the level of obedience to reduce to 10%. This shows that the social support provided from the other participants gave them the confidence to reject the position of authority. + Gamson et al also gave support to the idea that larger groups provide a stronger social support system, which makes resisting obedience/social influence much easier. These researchers found that when participants where placed in groups, 88% resisted the pressure to conform to the same smear campaign which other confederates had developed. This also clearly demonstrates the significant influence of social support systems.

Answer 41

Randomly selected participants and confederates

Answer 42

To observe how minorities can influence a majority

Answer 43

* It was a lab experiment * Participants were in a group where there were two confederates (the minority) and four participants (the majority). * Everyone was shown 36 blue slides, each with a different shade of blue. * They were each asked to say whether the slide was blue or green. * Confederates deliberately said they were green on two-thirds of the trials, thus producing a consistent minority view. * The number of times that the real participants reported that the slide was green was observed. * A control group was also used consisting of participants only – no confederates..

Answer 44

When the confederates were consistent in their answers about 8% of participants said the slides were green. However, when the confederates answered inconsistently about 1% of participants said the slides were green. This shows that consistency is crucial for a minority to exert maximum influence on a majority.

Answer 45

* Diachronic consistency is when the group remains consistent over time – they do not change their views over time. * Synchronic consistency is when the group is consistent between all the members of the group – everyone in the group has the same views, and therefore agree with and support each other.

Answer 46

The majority is more likely to be influenced by the minority when the minority is committed, because when the minority have so much passion and confidence in their point of view, it suggests to the majority that their view must somehow be valid, and it encourages them to explore why; offering more opportunity to be influenced.

Answer 47

The majority is more likely to be influenced by the minority when the minority is flexible. Being too consistent can suggest that the minority is inflexible, uncompromising and irrational, making their argument less appealing to the majority. However, if they appear flexible, compromising and rational, they are less likely to be seen as extremists and attention seekers. They are more likely to be seen as reasonable, considerate and cooperative.

Answer 48

+ Martin et al (2003) found that people were less willing to change their opinion if they had listened to a minority group rather than if they were shared with a majority group. This suggests minority message had been deeply processed and had an enduring effect. In his study, one group heard the opinion of a minority group whilst the second group heard the opinion of a majority group. After both groups were exposed to an opposing opinion, the group who’d heard the minority view were significantly less likely to change their own views. This suggests that a minority is more powerful because it holds risk (the augmentation principle) and so forces the audience to reconsider their own views. + The emphasis of consistency, commitment and flexibility have a real-life application because they can inform minority groups about the best way to behave in order to exert a maximum amount of influence. However, it is worth considering that the majority is not only larger than the minority, but often has greater connections and more power. Therefore, the three techniques described above are not always enough to change the opinion of an audience.

Answer 49

— A key issue with Moscovici’s study in particular is the reliance on artificial tasks and stimuli. This means that such methodology lacks mundane realism because the tasks do not reflect the scenarios within which minority groups would act in real life. This also means that the findings are likely to lack ecological validity because the extent to which the results can be generalised is limited.

Answer 50

more and more people adopt the minority view until it becomes the new majority opinion. Eventually, those who resist this new view may feel pressured to conform, and the new majority view often becomes law, so people must follow it.

Answer 51

— Social change, as argued by Nemeth (1986) is a slow process and produced fragile effects. He argues that the majority are not exposed to the main issue at hand (which, if addressed, would cause a change in norms which would appear to be too drastic) and so this main issue is not resolved. The process takes a long time, meaning that the effects (i.e. social change) are also delayed. Therefore, this suggests that social change through minority influence cannot be relied upon to bring about long-standing changes in society. — Social change is not always as simple as portrayed above, with many being quite settled in their views and unwilling to change. Bashir suggests that these social barriers are largely due to the stereotypes which many have. For example, despite the obvious perks to recycling, many are still unwilling to admit that they recycle in fear of being labelled ‘weird’ or a ‘tree-hugger’. This suggests that minority influence and social influence are not always completely effective because they cannot tackle these kinds of issues. — Mackie suggests that the role of minority influence is very limited because we are more likely to change our own views if the majority view is different to our own. This is because we often take comfort knowing that so many other people also share our view that when they don’t, we become unsettled and are forced to deeply process this change!