relationships

Question 1

what term describes the difference between male and female gametes?

Answer 1

anisogamy

Question 2

what differences in male and female gametes may occur?

Answer 2

• size of the gametes,
• the energy invested into their production
• static or mobile
• intervals at which they are produced.

Question 3

what is inter-sexual selection?

Answer 3

Inter-sexual selection describes the strategies that each sex uses to attract the other.

Question 4

why is the “quality over quantity” approach favoured by females?

Answer 4

The ‘quality over quantity’ approach is favoured by females because they invest more energy into the development of ova, which are produced in limited numbers at intervals across their lives.

Therefore, a female will be more ‘choosy’ as to who she mates with, due to her limited reproductive resources.

This, from an evolutionary standpoint, enables the high quality of her offspring.

Question 5

what is fisher’s sexy son’s hypothesis?

Answer 5

through a female choosing to mate with an attractive male, her offspring will also grow up to be attractive or ‘sexy’, and so are themselves likely to attract females to mate with

Question 6

what is intra sexual selection?

Answer 6

Intra-sexual selection describes the strategies used within sexes to attract males.

Question 7

why is the “quantity over quality” approach favoured by males?

Answer 7

The ‘quantity over quality’ approach is favoured by males because they produce sperm continuously throughout their lifetime, with little energy investment.

Therefore, from an evolutionary perspective, it is most effective to impregnate as many women as possible, in order to ensure the survival of their genes.

Question 8

what does dimorphism mean?

Answer 8

The physical differences between the male and female sexes.

Question 9

disadvantages of sexual selection

Answer 9

— Evidence suggests that it is incorrect to assume that current reproductive patterns still have a strong evolutionary basis, but rather an interactionist approach would be more accurate, where the influences of both culture and evolution are combined together, as suggested by Chang et al (2011). Changing social and cultural norms means that women no longer place a large emphasis on resource-availability when looking for a new partner, as suggested by Bereczkei et al (1997) because women are now more financially independent, with the average age of marriage currently exceeding 30. This suggests that some evolutionary pressures for inter-sexual selection no longer apply in the modern climate.

Question 10

advantages of sexual selection

Answer 10

+ However, research has suggested that there are some sexual selection pressures which have been constant in terms of evolution and in terms of modern times, such as the hip to waist ratio, as suggested by Singh (1993). If this ratio is around 0.7, then this demonstrates to potential mates that the female is fertile and able to carry children over a long period of time, with birth being easier when the female has larger hips and a narrower waist. Therefore, this suggests that some evolutionary pressures are still relevant in modern times.

+ There is also evidence supporting the idea that females are more selective when it comes to potential mates, due to their greater energy and genetic input into the pregnancy and care for the child, as suggested by Clark and Hatfield (1989). These researchers found that 75% of college males, compared to 0% of females, would be willing to sleep with a stranger if this stranger had approached them and complimented them! This supports the idea that men have an evolutionary predisposition to want to impregnate as many women as possible, due to the high rates of sperm production and little energy/resources required to do so, and so also supports the differences in mate selection strategies used by females and males i.e. intra- and inter-selection.

Question 11

what is self-disclosure?

Answer 11

self disclosure refers to the information we want to reveal about ourselves

Question 12

what is the aims of self-disclosure?

Answer 12

The aim of self disclosure is to increase the intimacy, understanding and empathy between two individuals.

This is under the condition that the self-disclosure is reciprocal.

Question 13

what theory did Altman and Taylor propose?

Answer 13

social penetration theory

Question 14

what does the social penetration theory suggest?

Answer 14

It suggests that the process of self-disclosure allows one person to penetrate deeper into the life of their partner, thus increasing intimacy and trust.

Question 15

what did Reis and Shaver suggest?

Answer 15

There are two elements of the social penetration theory - depth and breadth.

There is a positive correlation between the increasing quality and trust within a relationship, coinciding with increasing depth and breadth of revealed information.

Question 16

advantages of social penetration theory

Answer 16

+ An increased understanding of the importance of self-disclosure in building and maintaining intimacy within relationships can have a real-life practical advantage, as suggested by Hass and Stafford (1998). These researchers found that for couples with high levels of intimacy and commitment within their relationships, 57% reported the use of self-disclosure as a way to maintain it. Therefore, this supports the use of therapies which focus on increasing the depth and breadth of self-disclosure for couples who struggle with intimacy, as well as increasing trust within the relationship. These are the predictions made by social penetration theory, thus further increasing the validity of this theory!

+ However, there is research support for the predictions made by social penetration theory, as suggested by Laurenceau et al (2005). These researchers found that, on the basis of daily diary entries, high levels of intimacy and trust were strongly associated or correlated with high levels of self-disclosure, in married couples. This suggests that the depth and breadth of self-disclosure is strongly predictive of the intimacy and quality of romantic relationships, which again supports the validity of the social penetration theory as an indicator of relationship quality.

Question 17

disadvantages of social penetration theory

Answer 17

— A key methodological issue with the use of correlational studies, such as Sprecher and Hendrick (2004), is that causal conclusions cannot be made. For example, simply because there is a correlation between satisfaction and self-disclosure does not necessarily mean that the former causes the latter. Correlational studies can never establish ‘cause and effect’ relationships between two variables because they may also be affected by the ‘third variable problem’. This occurs when a third, unstudied variable can affect both outcomes e.g. the age difference between each couple. Therefore, this means that correlational studies cannot be relied upon to demonstrate the mechanism of self- disclosure in relation to the quality of relationships.

Question 18

Shakleford and Larson suggested that….

Answer 18

females with neotenous (child-like) faces are more likely to be viewed as attractive by males because their facial features trigger an aggressive and protective trait in men, which gives the female an evolutionary advantage.

Question 19

what is the ‘halo effect’?

Answer 19

The halo effect suggests that we have a tendency to associate highly attractive people with pre- conceived disproportionately positive characteristics, including personality and wealth, even though these factors may not be linked.

Question 20

what does the “matching hypothesis” state is key to a successful relationship?

Answer 20

The key to a successful relationship, according to the Matching Hypothesis, is striking a balance between the attractiveness of a mate and the realistic chances of attaining such a mate.

Question 21

what did McNully et al suggest?

Answer 21

That physical attractiveness being important to a relationship is not restricted to the ‘early’ stages. For example, McNully et al (2008) found that physical attractiveness was still an important determinant of a successful relationship, even after marriage.

Question 22

Disadvantages of factors affecting attraction:

Answer 22

— The halo effect and physical attractiveness may vary in its
importance as a predictor of the quality of early relationships depending on the individual, as suggested by Towhey (1979).

This researcher found that participants with low scores on
the MAHCO scale (which measures underlying sexist beliefs about others) were less likely to be attracted to an individual as a potential partner based purely on their physical attractiveness.

This suggests that physical attractiveness, from an evolutionary perspective, does not provide the same
selection pressure for all individuals, and so may explain the cases of couples were one is significantly more attractive than the other. Therefore, the halo effect has a good theoretical value.

Question 23

advantages of factors affecting attraction:

Answer 23

+ Although physical attraction is a relatively broad term, it is not affected extensively by cultural relativism, with both individualist and collectivist cultures finding similar features attractive, as suggested by Cunningham et al (1995). These features include large eyes, high eyebrows and sharp cheekbones, and this is applicable across both Asian and Western male respondents, as demonstrated by Wheeler and Kim (1997). Therefore, this means that although the influence of physical attractiveness varies between individuals, what is considered ‘attractive’ is relatively consistent.

+ There are important real-life, practical applications associated with an increased understanding of the halo effect and its influence on individual perceptions of others. For example, Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that even when participants were informed that the images of physically attractive people represented those of people with little knowledge of political matters, respondents still judged these images as representative of people who were highly politically-skilled, mature and trustworthy. This has important implications on the state of politics, where the success of some politicians or political parties may be more easily or accurately explained as a result of the halo effect, rather than actual political expertise. Therefore, this knowledge could be used to the advantage of some parties when selecting candidates!

Question 24

what is kerkhoff and Davis’ theory?

Answer 24

We are initially exposed to a ‘field of availables’ but, in order to form relationships, we must narrow down this field into a ‘field of desirables’, using the 3 filters of social demography, similarity in attitudes and complementarity. The importance of each filter depends on whether the relationship is short-term or long-term.

• social demography
• similarity in attitudes
• idea of complementarity

Question 25

what is the idea of social demography?

Answer 25

The first filter is social demography, and describes the factors which can make potential partners attractive to us. Key to this is the idea of similarity in terms of these factors which include religion, sexuality, ethnicity, social class, educational attainment and proximity. Two people sharing similar social demographic features are more likely to find each other attractive. Nevertheless, proximity is key because it provides accessibility, which makes communication and relationship formation between both parties easier, as the two individuals have regular access to each other. Therefore, close proximity between two individuals may ‘trump’ dissimilarities in other social demographic features.

Question 26

what is the idea of similarity of attitudes?

Answer 26

The second filter is similarity in attitudes, which is particularly important in short-term relationships i.e. less than 18 months in duration. This describes basic similarities in terms of core beliefs about significant topics, such as love, sex and religion. Large dissimilarities in the attitudes expressed between two partners may cause the relationship to end, because of the incompatability that would result in the long-term.

Question 27

what is the idea of complementarity?

Answer 27

The third , which is particularly important in long-term relationships, is the idea of complementarity. A relationship is more likely to be successful if two people feel that they ‘complete’ each other to form a ‘whole’, therefore supporting the common belief that opposites attract e.g. a sociable individual will enjoy encouraging their partner to partake in more activities, which in turn means that the partner will enjoy and benefit themselves from improved social skills.

Question 28

Factors affecting attraction: filter theory disadvantages

Answer 28

— Filter theory may have been considered a valid explanation for relationship formation, but only before the increased use of the Internet and online dating. Such technological advances mean that our ‘field of desirables’ is further increased because we are not restricted by certain social demographics, such as proximity and social class or culture, because we have the ability to communicate with potential partners before meeting them and potentially starting a relationship. This means that filter theory may lack temporal validity because it can only explain dating phenomena which have been restricted to the era before the Internet. Nonetheless, the majority of individuals can still use the three filters outlined in the theory, and so it is not completely invalid as an explanation for relationship formation.

— However, there is evidence to refute the idea that initial similarities are important in the early stages of relationship formation, as suggested by Anderson et al (2003). These researchers demonstrated the idea of emotional convergence (where over time, a couple’s emotional responses and attitudes will become more similar, and so can be considered as a type of adaptation in response to living together), whilst the ‘attitude alignment effect’ (where over time, a couple’s attitudes will become more similar) was demonstrated by David and Rusbult (2001). This means that there exist individual differences in the ways in which filter theory affects different individuals, and that the importance of initial similarities between romantic partners is not always concrete.

Question 29

factors affecting attraction: filter theory advantages

Answer 29

+ There is evidence to support that filter theory is an important predictor of the progression and initial development of a relationship, as suggested by Winch (1958). He found that initial similarities in beliefs and attitudes were cited as one of the main attractive features in the partners of respondents, which is in line with the predictions made by the matching hypothesis, as well as increasing the validity of filter theory as a way of narrowing the field of availables down to a field of desirables. Therefore, this suggests that even in the modern age, filter theory and the matching hypothesis are still valid explanations of relationship formation.

Question 30

what is Thiabault and Kelleys theory?

Answer 30

The Social Exchange Theory
- takes an ‘economical’ approach, viewing
- we all aim to increase our rewards and decrease our benefits.
- we invest time, energy and money into each relationship and so we want to ‘get our worth’.

Question 31

what is the comparison level?

Answer 31

• the Comparison level (CL) refers to our perception of what we are worth and so what we can get out of a relationship.
• with experience because we can base our CL off of a larger number of relationships and experiences.

Question 32

what are the four stages of assessing the quality and profit of a relationship?

Answer 32

1) sampling ( rewards and costs)
2) bargaining ( compromises are made)
3) commitment (standards or rewards and costs are made clear)
4) institutionalisation (standards established)

Question 33

disadvantages of SET

Answer 33

-SET may be more useful as a retrospective explanation as to why relationships break down, rather than an explanation of their initial development. This is because many of the concepts in SET cannot be objectively and quantitatively measured, such as comparison levels and the comparison levels of alternatives. It is for this reason that it is difficult to establish ‘thresholds’ for each of these concepts i.e. what type and value of a discrepancy between two comparison levels is needed to trigger the breakdown of a relationship? This means that SET is a subjective theory and reflects each individual’s perception of what is ‘worthy’ in a relationship, in terms of the comparison levels.

— SET makes the incorrect assumption that considerations of alternatives triggers dissatisfaction.
This makes sense because people in committed, loving relationships are unlikely to look towards other attractive people as alternatives because they are satisfied in their own relationship, and have their own perception of suitable comparison levels, as suggested by Argyle (1987). It therefore should follow that satisfied individuals in long-term relationships will spend less time looking at other highly attractive people because the benefits of their current relationship exceeds the associated costs, as demonstrated by Miller (1997). Therefore, this suggests that SET is likely to be an accurate explanation for comparison levels as a mechanism for relationship breakdown after dissatisfaction appears, as opposed to the opposite.

— The overemphasis of SET on the role of comparison levels ignores the importance of equity - even if the benefits of a relationship exceed the costs for an individual, if this excess is not equal to that of their partner’s, then this inequity is likely to be a major cause of dissatisfaction in the relationship, even if the two partners have similar perceptions of their comparison levels. This idea has been supported by equity research, such as that conducted by Utne et al (1984).

Question 34

what is equity theory?

Answer 34

suggests that striking a balance between the ratio of cost and reward that each individual has is the key to a successful relationship. Therefore, couples are not always looking to maximise their gains, but simply to have a ‘fair’ relationship.

Question 35

What does the disparity between the perceptions of the rewards to cost ratio mean?

Answer 35

disparity causes the overbenefitted individual to feel guilty and not worthy of the other,

whereas the underbenefitted individual feels envious and disappointed that their input into the relationship is not reciprocal.

Question 36

why is the degree of “input” larger at the start of the relationship and why does it then decrease?

Answer 36

in order to secure the other partner, but decreases as a standard of equity has been established between the couple

Question 37

advantages of equity theory?

Answer 37

+ However, there is evidence supporting the link between equity theory and the satisfaction or commitment in a relationship, as suggested by Utne et al. Satisfied couples (out of a sample of 118, and who’d been dating for 2 or more years before marriage) valued equity as a key component of the success of their relationship, and preferred this balance compared to one or both members being benevolents or entitleds. Therefore, this suggests that equity has greater ecological validity than SET because it can explain the quality and satisfaction associated with real-life couples, as opposed to simply being theoretical.

Question 38

disadvantages of equity theory

Answer 38

— There is evidence contradicting the idea that the idea of equity is universal across all relationships and crucial to upholding the quality of all relationships, as suggested by Huseman et al (1987). This influence varies depending on the individual and whether they are happy to disproportionately give to the relationship (‘benevolents’) or disproportionately thrive off of the relationship (‘entitleds’). In both cases, individuals do so without worry and are aware of their actions, as well as their partner’s attitudes. This means that equity is essentially a perception and is not universal across all people.

— It has been suggested by Clark and Mills (2011) that equity theory may be a better or more valid explanation for friendship and business/non-personal relationships, as opposed to simply romantic relationships. This is because the researchers emphasised that it is important to draw distinctions between different types of relationships, and the different expectations that go with each, which may impact on the perceived equity levels. Hence, this suggests that SET is a limited explanation for only some types of relationships.

Question 39

what did Rusbult et al suggest is an extension of social exchange theory?

Answer 39

suggested that commitment and investment are both more important than satisfaction in determining the likelihood of a successful relationship

Question 40

what are the three factors that determine the level of commitment?

Answer 40

satisfaction levels,
comparison with alternatives
investment size

Question 41

what does comparison levels refer to?

Answer 41

If one partner feels that their profits are decreasing, such as through costs increasing throughout the course of the relationship , then they shall start looking for alternative relationships or even consider having no relationship at all.

Question 42

what does is mean when couples still stay together despite having small profits?

Answer 42

Because they have made large investments in the relationship. This refers to the loss of tangible (intrinsic) or intangible (extrinsic) resources after the end of a relationship. Therefore, there are two types of investment - intrinsic and extrinsic.

Question 43

What are intrinsic investments?

Answer 43

Intrinsic investments describe resources which were we have added to the relationship, both at the
beginning and throughout e.g. money, time, energy, opportunities etc.

Question 44

what are extrinsic investments?

Answer 44

Extrinsic investments describe ‘resources’ which have come about as a result of the relationship e.g. a shared mortgage, children, strong expectations from others of staying together.

Question 45

what determines how hard a partner would work to salvage their relationship?

Answer 45

the size of investment

Question 46

advantages of rustbelt’s model

Answer 46

+ Rusbult’s Investment Model features high ecological validity because it can easily explain abusive relationships, by shifting the focus from relationship satisfaction to that of investment and viable alternatives, as demonstrated by Rusbult and Martz (1995). These researchers found that the predictions based off of Rusbult’s model can explain why ‘battered women’ often return to their abusive partners, and explained this in terms of making significant investments and having few alternative partners, rather than satisfaction (which is obviously not present in an abusive relationship, featuring intimate partner violence, for both partners). Therefore, this shift of focus may be considered refreshing and a more valid explanation of abusive relationships compared to SET or equity theory.

+ Although self-report measures are usually criticised as lacking objectivity and creating qualitative data, this is not the case with Rusbult’s model. The key elements of his model focus on an individual’s perception of their investments, resources and energy, as opposed to a quantitative value. This makes sense and has high ecological validity when considering that an individual’s perception of their investments is often different to their partner’s perception in the instance of relationship breakdown. Therefore, Rusbult’s investment model has used the correct methodology to accurately reflect the subjective nature of the model’s features.

Question 47

disadvantages of rusbult’s model

Answer 47

— Rusbult’s Investment Model sees the motivation to continue with a relationship according to the investments, time and energy which an individual has contributed. However, the motivation to see a couple’s future plans come to fruition may be a bigger predictor of relationship success, as opposed to initial investments which are often very low in the early stages of romantic relationships. This was suggested by Goodfriend and Agnew (2008). Therefore, Rusbult’s model may have oversimplified the concept of investment and its future implications on the plans that couples make together.

Question 48

what did Duck suggest?

Answer 48

Duck (2007) suggested that there is a process of relationship breakdown, which occurs in 4 distinct stages, each marked by a ‘threshold’ or a change in each partner’s perception of the relationship, which leads them to enter the next stage.

Question 49

what is the first stage?

Answer 49

The first stage is the intra-psychic stage, which focuses upon cognitive elements.

One or both partners have reached the point/threshold that they are evaluating the costs and rewards of their relationship, and reconsidering the profitability as compared to the investments.

However, most of these processes are private, and are unlikely to be shared, unless potentially with a trusted friend.

Question 50

what is the second stage?

Answer 50

The second stage, after the first threshold has been reached, is the dyadic phase.

The previously private thoughts about the future of the relationship are now openly discussed between the partners, who may voice concerns over inequity, jealousy, increasing costs of the relationship etc.

This may either provoke the partners to work to salvage the relationship, or may trigger the beginning of a public breakdown.

Question 51

what is the third stage of the relationship?

Answer 51

The third stage is the social phase, where the break-up has been made public.

This triggers friends of the couple to evaluate the relationship to either give reassurance/support or place blame on one of the partners, which inevitably results in the majority of the mutual friends having to take sides.

A final attempt at salvaging the relationship may be made by these friends, perhaps by offering their advice or helping resolve equity issues etc.

Question 52

what is the fourth stage?

Answer 52

The fourth and final stage is the grave-dressing stage, which confirms the end of the relationship and signifies both members to ‘move on’.

Key to this face is ‘keeping good face’ and maintaining a positive social image.

This may involve fabricating false stories about the cause of the end of the relationship to make it more socially-acceptable (e.g. the infidelity of one partner may be blamed on the unattractiveness of the other).

Both partners make new plans to carry on with their lives, taking with them valuable lessons learnt from the previous relationship.

Question 53

what are the disadvantages of ducks phase model?

Answer 53

— There may be a fifth stage of the model, as suggested by Rollie and Duck (2006), called the resurrection phase where individuals learn from the experiences of their previous relationships. However, these researchers also suggest that a relationship breakdown model should be a dynamic progression as opposed to a set sequence of stages through which all people pass through. The social dynamics within each stage can also affect the chances of ex-partners reuniting, such as the spreading of rumours during the dyadic or social phases. This means that Duck’s model may be oversimplified and has little ecological validity because it cannot represent the progression of real-life relationships.
— Flemlee’s ‘fatal attraction hypothesis’ (1995) may be a better and more valid explanation of relationship breakdown compared to the Phase Model. This is because the fatal attraction hypothesis, which suggests that the initially desirable characteristics become less so as the relationship progresses, actually explains the cause of relationship breakdown as opposed to simply the progression of the breakdown (as the Phase Model does). This means that Duck’s model may lack ecological validity because it is a general description of a universal sequence of stages involved in relationship breakdown, as opposed to a concrete explanation.
— There are also serious methodological issues associated with the research upon which Duck’s Phase Model was based upon. For example, much of the research features self-report measures which are completed retrospectively after the end of the relationship. This means that the data may rely too much on the respondents’ accuracy of memory and a realistic perception of the relationship. In addition, since researchers are unwilling to intervene at the early stages of relationship breakdown, this means that these early stages are mostly speculative and their workings inferred from the later stages. Therefore, these methodological issues draws doubts over the validity and accuracy of Duck’s Phase Model as an explanation for relationship breakdown.