Social Cognitive theory Flashcards
What is the multi store model of memory?
- The sensory register
This is a temporary store holding information from the environment very briefly in the form in which it is received- that is, visually, auditory, tactile, or olfactory.
Information needs to receive attention if it is going to begin the process of being transferred to short term memory
A stimulus from the environment will pass into the sensory register. So this part of memory is not in one store, but several, in fact one for each of the five senses. The two main stores are called iconic memory (visual memory is coded visually) and echoic memory (sound or auditory information is coded acoustically)
The sensory register is where information from the senses is stored, but only for a duration of approximately half a second before it is forgotten. In terms of encoding it is modality-specific, i.e. whichever sense is registered will match the way it is consequently held.
The capacity is unknown but it is suggested to be unlimited.
- Short term memory
STM is thought to have a capacity of 5-9 items and a duration of approximately 18-30 seconds. The capacity can be increased through ‘chunking’.
Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat material to ourselves over and over again. We can keep the information in our short-term memory as long as we rehearse it. If we rehearse it long enough, it passes into our long-term memory. If the information is not rehearsed- or if more information disrupts rehearsal- then the information in the store may be displaced and lost. In addition, when we recall something it is retrieved from LTM and enters our STM so that decisions can be made and problems can be solved
- Long term memory
LTM is where memory is stored after it has been rehearsed while in STM. LTM is of unlimited capacity and duration.
Rehearsing information via the rehearsal loop helps to retain information in the STM, and consolidate it to LTM, which is predominantly encoded semantically.
Long term memory is known as the potentially permanent memory store for information that has been rehearsed for a prolonged time. Information can be stored and retrieved for up to any duration, and equally has a seemingly unlimited capacity.
what is the serial position effect?
- The serial position effect refers to the findings that recall accuracy varies as a function of the position of an item within a study list. When asked to recall a list of items in any order, people tend to begin recall with the end of the list, recalling those items best. This is known as the recency effect. Among earlier list items, the first few items are recalled more frequently than the middle terms; this is known as the primacy effect.
- One suggested reason for the primacy effect is that the initial items presented are most effectively stored in long-term memory because of the greater amount of processing devoted to them. The first list item can be rehearsed by itself; the second must be rehearsed along with the first, the third along with the first and second, and so on.
- One suggested reason for the recency effect is that these items are still present in working memory when recall is solicited.
- Items that benefit from neither effect are recalled most poorly
- The primacy effect is enhanced when items are presented slowly and reduced when they are presented quickly
- The recency effect is reduced when an interfering task is given
Glanzer and Cunitz
MSM
Aim:
Glanzer and Cunitz aimed to investigate the impact of time intervals between words and repetition on the primacy effect in memory recall. They hypothesized that longer intervals between words would enhance rehearsal, leading to a greater primacy effect, while repetition would improve overall recall.
Procedure:
The study utilized an independent samples design with 240 Army enlisted men, divided into six conditions, each consisting of 40 participants:
Each word read once at a 3-second rate
Each word read twice in succession at a 3-second rate
Each word read once at a 6-second rate
Each word read twice in succession at a 6-second rate
Each word read once at a 9-second rate
Each word read twice in succession at a 9-second rate
Participants underwent a practice session with two 5-word lists to familiarize themselves with the procedure. Subsequently, they listened to recordings of eight 20-word lists, with variations in time intervals and repetition. After each list, participants had two minutes to recall the words in any order. The researchers used a bell to signal the end of each list.
Findings:
The study revealed that longer time intervals between words led to increased recall for all words in the list except for those at the end. The primacy effect, characterized by better recall of words at the beginning of the list, was enhanced with longer time intervals, indicating the role of rehearsal in memory retention. However, the effect of repetition on recall was observed only at the 3-second rate, with no significant impact at the 6 or 9-second rates.
Conclusion:
The findings support the theory that the primacy effect is a result of rehearsal, as longer time intervals allowed for more rehearsal and consequently greater overall recall of the list. However, the availability of words in short-term memory mitigated the impact of repetition on recall. This study contributes to our understanding of memory processes and the factors influencing memory retention, particularly the role of rehearsal and time intervals in shaping the primacy effect.
The case study of HM: Milner
Aim:
The aim of this case study was to investigate the effects of surgical removal of specific brain structures on patient HM’s memory functioning, particularly focusing on the role of the hippocampus and other medial temporal structures in memory formation and retention.
Procedure:
To conduct the research, Milner utilized various methods including psychometric testing, direct observation of behavior, interviews with HM and family members, cognitive testing including memory recall tasks and learning tasks, and later MRI scans by Corkin to assess the extent of brain damage. These methods allowed for a comprehensive understanding of HM’s memory capabilities and deficits post-surgery.
Findings:
The study revealed that HM was unable to acquire new episodic or semantic knowledge, indicating the importance of the removed brain structures in transferring information from short-term to long-term memory. However, he demonstrated intact working memory and retained procedural memories, suggesting the involvement of different brain areas in various memory systems. MRI scans showed damage primarily in the hippocampus and surrounding temporal lobe structures, supporting the critical role of the hippocampus in memory consolidation.
Conclusion:
The study highlights the specialization and complexity of memory systems in the brain, particularly emphasizing the role of the hippocampus in converting short-term memories into long-term memories. Additionally, it suggests that short-term memory is not stored in the hippocampus, as evidenced by HM’s ability to retain information temporarily through rehearsal. The preservation of some pre-surgery memories indicates that the medial temporal region may not be the site of permanent storage but rather facilitates the organization and storage of memories elsewhere in the brain. Furthermore, the presence of intact procedural memory supports the notion of multiple memory stores, each associated with different brain regions.
Case study of HM link to MSM
This study provides evidence for the multi-store model of memory by demonstrating distinct memory systems associated with different brain regions. HM’s inability to acquire new episodic and semantic knowledge following hippocampal damage aligns with the model’s concept of a separate long-term memory store where information is permanently stored. Meanwhile, his intact working memory and retained procedural memories suggest the existence of separate short-term and procedural memory stores, respectively. Thus, the findings of this study support the multi-store model’s proposition of distinct memory stores with different functions and neural substrates.
evaluation for HM case study
- The study was a case study. The strength of this study is that it waslongitudinal- over 50 years! This means that change could be observed over time. In addition, case studies use method triangulation.
- The limitation of case studies is that they cannot be easily replicated. However, there are several other case studies of patients like HM - for example, Clive Wearing - which confirm the findings.
- Some of the study was retrospective. This means that we do not have a lot of data on HM’s actual cognitive abilities before the accident.
- The medication taken to treat epilepsy may have resulted in some of the damage, but this is not highly relevant as it is the damage to specific parts of the brain that is important.
- Highecological validity, no variables were manipulated and HM was observed in his natural environment.
- Milner’s research met high ethical standards of consent, confidentiality, and protection from harm.
Positive evaluation for the multi store model of memory
- The model gave us a way to talk about memory and much of the research which followed was based on this model, trying to answer many of the questions psychologists had about memory
- There is a large base of research that supports the idea of distinct STM and LTM systems
- The multi-store model has also been useful in explaining certain memory phenomena, such as the primacy and recency effects. These effects occur when people are presented with a list of items to remember; the items at the beginning of the list are more likely to be remembered due to their entry into long-term memory, while the items at the end of the list are more likely to be remembered due to their presence in short-term memory
- The MSM was a pioneering model of memory that inspired further research and consequently other influential models, such as the working memory model.
negative evaluation for the multi store model of memory
- Some research into STM duration has low ecological validity, as the stimuli participants were asked to remember bear little resemblance to items learned in real life (lack mundane realism)
- The model is over-simplified and assumes that all stores work as an independent unit, evidence suggests that there are many different short term and long term stores
- The model does not explain memory distortion
- The model does not explain why some things may be learned with a minimal amount of rehearsal. The levels of processing theory challenges this model, showing that the way in which we process information may be more important than the frequency of rehearsal
- It does not make much sense to think of a procedural memory as being encoded semantically (i.e. learning to ride a bike through its meaning)
- It is only assumed that LTM has an unlimited capacity, as research has been unable to measure this accurately.
Similarities between the multi store model and the working memory model
Recognise that STM and LTM are separate stores
Neither model provides an explanation for memory distortion or the role of emotion in memory formation
Both models argue that rehearsal is necessary for complete memory retention
differences between the MSM and the WMM
MSM
More over-simplified than the working memory model
Passive process
WMM
Breaks STM into 4 substores
Provides STM as a more dynamic process
Allows for parallel processing/multitasking
What prompted the working model of memory
Their proposal followed Atkinson and Shiffrins ‘Multi-store model of memory’, which was criticised for being too simple. They proposed that STM, or working memory was not just one store, but composed of many stores with different localised areas.
- This came from his findings on dual performance tasks where he found that two visual tasks led to poor performance, however, if one task was visual and one was verbal, then there was no interruption.
What are dual performance tasks?
- the proposed three-stores STM stemmed from research using a ‘dual task technique’, whereby performance is measured as participants perform two tasks simultaneously. The following observations provided evidence to suggest different, limited capacity STM stores process different types of memory
- If one store is utilised for both tasks then task performance is poorer than when they are completed separately, due to the stores limited capacity
- If the tasks require different stores, performance would be unaffected when performing them simultaneously
What is the central executive
- replaces the sensory register
- directs attention to tasks and determines how resources (slave systems) are allocated
- Allocates information based on modality (i.e. visual or auditory)
- Involves reasoning and decision-making tasks
- Limited capacity
- Coding is modality-free
what is the phonological loop?
- Deals with information and language- both written and spoken
- Limited capacity
- Baddeley further divided it into the phonological store and the articulatory loop (repetition)
- Coding is Acoustic
what is the visuospatial sketchpad?
- visual and/or spatial information is stored here
- Visual- what things look like
- Spatial- relationship between things
- Limited capacity (3-4 objects)
- It has two subsystems:
- The visual cache- stores visual data
- The inner scribe- records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
- Coding is Visual