Social

Question 1

Define stereotypes

Answer 1

Widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group

Question 2

Functions of stereotypes

Answer 2

• Automatically process social information
• Saves time, energy, effort
• Can cause over-generalization and bias

Question 3

Define attributions

Answer 3

• How we explain our own or others’ social behavior
• Inferences drawn about the cause of events

Question 4

Describe Weiner’s model of attributions for success and failure

Answer 4

• Internal
  
  • personal dispositions, traits, abilities, feelings
  • unstable (temporary) eg mood, fatigue
  • stable (permanent) eg ability, intelligence
• External
  
  • situational demands, environmental constraints
  • unstable (temporary) eg luck, chance
  • stable (permanent) eg task difficulty

Question 5

Describe actor-observer bias

Answer 5

• Observers
  
  • favor internal attributions in explaining other’s behavior
  • eg person A is stubborn
• Actors
  
  • favor external attributions for their behavior
  • eg topic is controversial

Question 6

Describe self-serving bias

Answer 6

• Tend to attribute successes to internal (personal) factors and failures to external (environmental) factors
• Progressively take more credit for successes and less responsibility for failures

Question 7

Individualism VS Collectivism

Answer 7

• Individualism
  
  • Personal goals > group goals
  • One’s identity defined by personal attributes
  • Likely for self-serving bias
• Collectivism
  
  • Group goals > personal goals
  • One’s identity defined by group attributes
  • Likely for self-effacing (modesty) bias

Question 8

Describe the matching hypothesis

Answer 8

• More similar, more likely to be attracted to each other
• eg physical looks, age, race, religion
• Higher match, higher marital satisfaction

Question 9

Define reciprocity effects

Answer 9

Liking those who show that they like us

Question 10

Describe passionate and companionate love

Answer 10

• Passionate
  
  • Complete absorption in each other
  • sexual feelings, intense emotions
• Companionate
  
  • Warmth, trust, tolerant affection
  • Intertwined lives

Question 11

Describe evolutionary perspectives on attraction

Answer 11

• Males
  
  • Seek youthfulness and physical attraction in partners
  • In courtship, emphasizes own material resources
  • eg conspicuous consumption to signal wealth and success
• Females
  
  • Seek ambition, social status, financial potential
  • In courtship, emphasizes own appearance
  • eg Allocate income to beauty products

Question 12

Describe cultural perspectives on relationships

Answer 12

• Similarities
  
  • Similarities between partners
  • Males seek physical attractiveness
  • Females seek social status and financial resources
• Differences
  
  • Individualist societies focus more on romantic, passionate love

Question 13

Define attitude and the components of attitude

Answer 13

• Positive or negative evaluation of objects of thought
• Cognitive: belief and ideas
• Affective: emotional feelings
• Behavioural: predispositions to act

Question 14

Why are attitude-behavior relations inconsistent?

Answer 14

• Explicit and implicit attitudes
  
  • Explicit: hold consciously, can readily describe
  • Implicit: subtle autonomic responses, little conscious control
• Attitude strength
• Situational constraints, eg peer pressure

Question 15

Describe the persuasion process in changing attitudes

Answer 15

• Source
  
  • person who sends communication
  • high credibility: expertise, trustworthiness, likability
• Receiver
  
  • person to whom the message is sent
  • stronger attitudes are more resistant to change
  • resistance promotes resistance
• Message
  
  • info transmitted by source
  • mere exposure effect: repeated exposures promotes greater liking
• Channel
  
  • medium of how the message is sent

Question 16

Describe the learning theories regarding attitude

Answer 16

• Evaluative (classical) conditioning
  
  • Pairing product/brand with celebrities
• Operant conditioning:
  
  • Reinforcement or punishment on stating an attitude
• Observational learning:
  
  • Learn how others receive rewards or punishments when stating an attitude

Question 17

Describe the dissonance theory

Answer 17

• Inconsistency among attitudes propels people towards changing attitudes
• Cognitive dissonance: when related attitudes or beliefs are inconsistent (contradictory)

Question 18

Describe the elaboration likelihood theory

Answer 18

• Central route
  
  • persuation based on content and logic
  • high elaboration, careful processing
  • more durable attitude change
• Peripheral route
  
  • persuation based on nonmessage factors eg attractiveness, emotion
  • low elaboration, minimal processing
  • less durable attitude change

Question 19

Define conformity

Answer 19

When people yield to real or imagined social pressures

Question 20

Why do people conform in certain situations?

Answer 20

• Normative influence: conform for fear of negative social consequences
• Informational influence: look to others for guidance about how to behave in ambiguous situations

Question 21

Define obedience

Answer 21

• Form of compliance when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority
• Collectivist cultures encourage more conformity (emphasize respect for cultural norms, cooperation, harmony)

Question 22

Describe the bystander effect

Answer 22

• People are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone
• Diffusion of responsibility in groups

Question 23

Describe social loafing

Answer 23

• Reduction in effort by individuals when working in groups, compared to when working individually
• Diffusion of responsibility in groups

Question 24

Describe decision making in groups

Answer 24

• Group polarization
  
  • group discussion strengthens a group’s dominant perspective
  • shifts toward more extreme decision
• Groupthink
  
  • increased pressure to conform at the expense of critical judgement in decision making
  • caused by cohesiveness or dominating power structure

Question 25

Define fundamental attribution error

Answer 25

Tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in judging others’ behavior