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PSYC2022 - Perception & Cogition > Slides Week 3 > Flashcards

Slides Week 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Two definitions of sound

A
  1. Physical Definition
  2. Perceptual Definition
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2
Q

Physical Definition of Sound

A

Sound is pressure changes in the air or other medium

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3
Q

Perceptual Definition of Sound

A

• Sound is the experience we have when we hear

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4
Q

What is sound?

A
  • Sound is created when objects vibrate
  • When an object vibrates it causes molecules around it to vibrate creating pressure change
  • Atmospheric pressure holds a pattern of fluctuation of sound
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5
Q

Amplitude

A
  • The magnitude of displacement of a sound pressure wave
  • Perceived as loudness and measured in Decibels (dB)
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6
Q

Frequency

A
  • The number of times per second that a pattern of pressure change repeats
  • Perceived as pitch and measured in Hertz (Hz)
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7
Q

Hearing frequencies in Humans

A
  • Humans have a limited range of frequencies and sound pressure levels
  • Range from about 20-20,000 Hz across a very wide range of intensities or sound pressure levels
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8
Q

Describe sounds

A
  • The simplest sounds are pure tone, but they are uncommon
  • Most sounds are complex
  • All sound waves can be described as a combination of sine waves
  • Complex sounds are best described as a spectrum that displays how much energy is present in each of the frequencies
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9
Q

Sound - Loudness

A

• The psychological aspect of sound related to perceived intensity or amplitude

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10
Q

Sound – Pitch

A

• The psychological aspect of sound related to mainly the sound frequency

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11
Q

Sound - Timbre

A

• The psychological sensation by which a listener can judge that two sounds with the same loudness and pitch are dissimilar

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12
Q

How is sound recognised by the auditory system?

A
  • Sense of hearing has evolved over millions of years
  • Many animals have different hearing capabilities
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13
Q

Outer Ear

A
  • Sounds are first collected from the environment by the Pinnae
  • Soundwaves are funnelled by the pinnae into the ear canal
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14
Q

Ear Canal

A
  • Collects sound waves and funnel the to the tympanic membrane
  • Length and shape of ear canal enhances certain sound frequencies
  • Insulates and protect the tympanic membrane
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15
Q

Tympanic Membrane

A
  • Also called eardrum
  • Thin layer of tissue in the human ear that receives sound vibrations from the outer air
  • Transmits to the auditory ossicles, which are tiny bones in the tympanic (middle-ear) cavity.
  • Vibrates in response to sound
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16
Q

Middle Ear

A
  • Pinnae and ear canal make up the outer ear
  • Tympanic membrane is border between outer ear and middle ear
  • Middle ear consists of three tiny bones called ossicles
    • Malleus
    • Incus
    • Staples
  • Ossicles amplify and transmit sound to the inner ear
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17
Q

Name the Ossicles

A
  1. Malleus
  2. Incus
  3. Stapes
  • These are the smallest bones in the body
  • Provide essential amplification to assist us to hear faint sounds
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18
Q

Malleus

A
  • Receives vibrations fromthe tympanic membrae and is attached to the incus
  • Also known as the Hammer
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19
Q

Incus

A
  • Also commonly known as the Anvil
  • Receives vibrations from the malleus, to which it is connected laterally
  • Transmits these to the stapes medially
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20
Q

Stapes

A
  • Connected to the Incus on one end and the oval windo of the cochlea on the other
  • Also commonly know as the Stirrup
  • Situated between the incus and the inner ear
  • Transmits sound vibrations from the incus to the oval window, a membrane-covered opening to the inner ear.
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21
Q

Muscles in Ossicle System

A
  1. Tympani Muscle
  2. Stapedius Muscle
  • Located in the Middle Ear
  • Decrease vibrations when tensed
  • They muffle sounds and protect the inner ear
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22
Q

Inner Ear

A

Where fine changes in sound pressure are transduced into neural signals

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23
Q

Cochlear

A

Spiral Structure of the inner ear containing the organ of Corti

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24
Q

Cochlea Parallel Canals

A
  • Vestibular Canal
  • Tympanic Canal
  • Middle Canal

Vibrations transmit through ltympanic membranes and middle ear bones cause stapes to push and pull the flexible oval window which moves the Cochlear fluid.

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25
Q

Organ of Corti

A
  • a structure on basilar membrane of the cochlea
  • composed of hair cells and dendrites of auditory nerve fibres
  • Movments of the cochlear partition are translated into nueral signals by structures in the organ of Corti
  • Cochlear partition extends the entire length of the cochlea
  • a specialized sensory epithelium that allows for the transduction of sound vibrations into neural signals
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26
Q

Tectorial Membrane

A
  • Gelatinous structure tht exteds to the middle canal of the ear
  • Floats above the inner hair cells
  • Touches outer hair cells
  • Vibrations cause displacement of Tectorial Membrane
  • Stereocilia attach to hair cells and cause release of neurotransmitters
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27
Q

Basilar Membrane

A
  • Different parts of the cochlea are sensitive to different frequencies
  • Membrane is thick and narrow towards the base cochlea and thin and wide at the apex
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28
Q

Top Down Influences - Auditory System

A
  • Inner hair cells convey almost information about sound waves to brain
  • Outer hair cells receive inforation from the brain
  • Outer hair cells can make parts of the cochlear partition stiffer
  • Makes inner hair cells more sensitive and more sharply attuned to specific frequencies
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29
Q

Cochlear Nucleus

A
  • The first brain stem nucleus at which afferent auditory nerve fibres synapse
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30
Q

Superior Olive

A
  • An early brain stem region in the auditory pathway
  • Where inputs from both ears converge
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31
Q

Inferiour Colliculus

A

A midbrain nucleus in the auditory pathway

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32
Q

Medial Geniculate Nuclues

A
  • Part of the Thalamus
  • Relays auditory signals to the temporal cortex
  • Receives input from auditory cortex
  • Information from each ear is processed in both sides of the cortex
33
Q

Primary Auditory Cortex - (A1)

A

The first area within the temporal lobes of the brain responsible for processing acoustic organisation

34
Q

Belt Area

A
  • A region directly adjacent to (A1)
  • Receives input from A1
  • Where neurons respond to more complex characteristics of sounds
35
Q

Parabelt Area

A
  • a region of auditory cortex
  • lateral and adjacent to the Belt Area
  • where neurons respond to more complex characteristics of sounds as well as to input from other senses.
  • Brain has tonotopic organisation
    • neurons that respond to different frequenies are organised anatomically in order of frequency
36
Q

Tonotopic Orgnisation

A

When spatial arrangment in brain corresponds to anatomy of the sensory organ in order of frequency of stimulation

37
Q

Common Causes of hearing loss

A
  • Obstruction of ear canal
  • Excessive build up of ear wax
  • Conductive hearing loss caused by problems with the bones of the middle ear
  • Hearing loss is a natural consequence of aging
38
Q

Sound Localisation

A
  • How do we locate sound?
  • Similar dilemma to determining how far an object is.
  • We need two ears: this is critical for determining auditory locations
39
Q

Left-Right Localisation in sound

A
  1. Interaural Time Differences (ITD)
  2. Interaural Level of Difference (ILD)
  3. Shape and form of Pinnae
40
Q

Azimuth

A
  • The angle of a sound source on the horizon relative to a point in the center of the head between the ears
  • Signaled by the difference in arrival times between the ears
  • The relative amplitude of high-frequency sounds (the shadow effect)
  • Asymmetrical spectral reflections from various parts of our bodies, including torso, shoulders, and pinnae.
41
Q

Interaural Time Differences (ITD)

A
  • The difference in time between a sound arriving at one ear versus the other
    *
42
Q

Interaural Time Differences (ITD)

A
  • ITD for different positions around the head
43
Q

Medial Superior Olive (MSO)

A
  • A relay station in the brain stem
  • Where inputs from both ears contribute to detection of ITDs
  • ITD detectors form connections from inputs coming from two ears during the first few months of life
44
Q

Interaural Level Differences (ILD)

A
  • The difference in intensity between a sound arriving at one ear versus the other
  • For frequencies above 1000Hz the head blocks some of the energy reaching to opposite ear
  • ILD is largest and 90o and -90o
  • ILD is nonexistant for 0o and 180o
45
Q

Physiology of ILDs

A
  • Lateral Superior Olive
  • Medial Superior Olive
46
Q

Lateral Superior Olive

A
  • A relay station in the brain stem where inputs from both ears contribute to the detection of ILDs
  • Excitatory connections to LSO come from ipsilateral ear
  • Inhibitory connections to LSO come from contralateral
47
Q

Potential Problems with ITD & ILD for sound localisation

A
  • Cone of Confusion
    • A region of positions in space where all sounds produce the same ITDs and ILDs
  • Elevation
    • Adds another dimension to sound localisation

Turning the head can disambiguate ILD/ITD similarity

48
Q

Directional Transfer Function (DTF)

A
  • A type of measurement
  • Describes how the pinnae, ear canal, head and torso change the intensity of sounds
  • different frequencies arrie at each ear from different locations in space.
  • Azimuth and Elevation
  • Each person has their own DTF based on ther own body
  • this helps us to locate sounds
49
Q

Neuroplasticity in Human Auditory System

A
  • Hoffman et al. (1998)
  • fitted participants ears with moulds worn continuously for 6 weeks.
  • tested sound localisation before, during and after molds fitted
50
Q

Hoffman et al 1998 Results

Neuroplasticity in Human Audition

A
  1. Localisation performance was accurate before mould
  2. Introduction of Moulds impaired localisation
  3. Gradual improvement as auditory systems calibrated
  4. Performance returned to near baseline immediately after moulds removed
51
Q

Auditory Distance Perception

A
  • Simplest cue is relative intensity of sound
  • Decrease in intensity is equal to the distance squared
  • As distance from a sources increases, intensity decreased faster
52
Q

Speech Production Involves:

A
  • Respiration from the lungs
  • Phonation from vocal chords
  • Articulation from the vocal tract
53
Q

Vocal Tract

A
  • The airway above the larynx used for the production of speech
  • Includes the oral tract and nasal tract
  • flexibility of vocal tract - important in speech production
54
Q

Respiration and Phonation

A
  • Initiating speech - diaphragm pushes air out of lungs, through trachea, up to larynx
  • Phonation: the process through which vocal folds are made to vibrate when air pushes out of the lungs
  • At larynx air must pass through two vocal folds
55
Q

Speech Production: Articulation

A
  • The manner of producing a speech sound using the vocal tract
  • Humans can change the shape of their mocal tract by manipulatiing their jaw, lips, toungue and soft palate
56
Q

Spectrogram

A

A pattern for sound analysis that provides a three-dimensional display plotting time on the horizontal axis, frequency on the vertical axis, and intensity in color or gray scale

57
Q

Speech Production: Formant

A
  • A resonance of the vocal tract that creates a peak in the speech spectrum
  • Labeled by number from lowest to highest (F1, F2, F3 etc)
  • concentrations in energy occur at different frequencies depending on length of vocal tract
58
Q

Speech Production: Phoneme

A
  • Shortest segments of speech
  • if changed they change the meaning of the word
  • number of phenomes varies across languages
  • 11 phenomes in Hawaiian
  • 47 in American English
  • up to 60 in some African languages
59
Q

Classifying Speech Sounds

A
  • Place of Articulation - at lips, alveolar ridge etc
  • Manner of Articulation - Totally, partially or slightly obstructed airflow
  • Whether the vocal chords are vibrating or not is call voicing
60
Q

Coarticulation

A
  • Where attributes of successive speech speech units overlap in articulatory or acoustic patterns
  • Speech production is fast: 10-15 consonants and vowels per second
  • Experienced talkers position of the tongue in anticipation of next consonant or vowel
61
Q

How do humans recognise sounds despite Coarticulation: Categorical Perception

A
  • Researchers can manipulate sound stimuli to vary continuously from ‘da’ to ‘ta’
  • People do not perceive the sounds as continuously varying
  • Instead they perceive sharp categorical boundaries between stimuli
62
Q

Motor Theory of Speech Perception

A
  • Motor Processes used to produce speech sounds are used in reverse to understand acoustic speech
  • McGurk & MacDonald (1976) showed that what someone sees can affect what they hear
  • The McGurk Effect
63
Q

Using multiple Acoustic Cells

A
  • Perception depends on experience
    eg: Dutch listeners use formant information over duration information

But Second language Dutch listeners use duration over formant

64
Q

Learning to Listen

A
  • Babies learn to listen even before they are born
  • Newborns prefer hearing their mother’s voice over other women’s voices
  • Four day old french babies prefer hearing French over Russian
  • Newborns prefer hearing children’s stories that were read aloud by their mothers
65
Q

Becoming a Native Listener

A
  • Sound distinctions are specific to various languages

eg R and L are not distinguished in Japanese

  • Infants begin filtering out irrelavant acoustics long before they start to say speech sounds
66
Q

Aphasia

A
  • Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke showed that damage to specific areas of the brain causes language problems
  • Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area are both found in the left hemisphere of the temporal lobe
67
Q

Broca’s Aphasia

A
  • Damage to frontal lobe in the Broca’s Area
  • Laboured and stilted speech
  • Can only speak in short sentence
  • Are capable of comprehending what others are saying.
  • Mum Had This.
68
Q
  • Patients with damage to Wenicke’s Area in Temporal Lobe
  • Can speak fluently but what is said is extremely disorganised
  • Speech is not meaningful
  • Great difficulty understand what is said to them.
  • Genny Jones had this.
A
69
Q

Music

A
  • Music is a way to express thoughts and emotions
  • Oldest musical instruments are 30,000 year old flutes carved from animal bones
70
Q

Music - Melody

A
  • Babies as young as 2 moths can differeniate between familiar vs unfamiliar melody
  • Plantinga & Trainor 2009
  • Babies show a consistent preference for consonant melodies compared to dissonant melodies from as youn as four months
  • Zentner & Kagan 1998
71
Q

Music - Rhythm

A
  • We automatically divide even regular beats into smaller groups where beats may have different emphasis
72
Q

Music - Absolute Pitch (AP)

A
  • A rare ability whereby some people are able to very accurately name or produce notes without comparison to other notes
  • Highly prized skill among musician
  • Debate as to whether AP is due to nature or nurture
  • More likely for people who begin musical training at a young age.
73
Q

Music - Amusia

A
  • An inability to perceive music
  • Also known as tone deafness
  • Very rare - 4% of the population
  • Can be congenita or due to damage anywhere along the auditory system
74
Q

Why did we develop music perception

A
  • No one really knows why but theories include:
    • Sexual attraction
    • Group bonding
    • Side effect of language evolution
  • Lebedeva & Kuhl (2010) found babies recognised changes in syllables better if it was sung compared to if it was spoken
75
Q

Is Music Perception of Psychological Interest?

Kantrowitz et al., 2014

A
  • In one study, 45% of patients with schizophrenia met the criteria for amusia
  • This is compared to 9% of control subjects
  • Findings suggest that music therapy may be useful for patients with schizophrenia
76
Q

Is Music Perception of Psychological Interest?

Guetin et al., 2009

A

Music therapy used in a number of settings including to improve anxiety and depression in Alzheimer’s

77
Q

Is Music Perception of Psychological Interest?

Nguyen et al., 2010

A
  • Music improves speech production in Parkinson’s
  • Lowers pain and anxiety during lumbar punctures in children with cancer
78
Q

Is Music Perception of Psychological Interest?

Blood & Zatorre., 2001

A

Listening to pleasurable music gave people “shivers-down-the-spine” or “chills“, changed heart rate and increased blood flow to reward centres of the brain

79
Q

Mozart Effect? Rauscher et al. (1993)

A
  • Subjects showed an 8-9 point increase in spatial intelligence after listening to Mozart.
  • Failed to replicate in subsequent studies; and any improvements are short-lived.
  • Research largely supports the benefit of music training on intelligence, language and memory (Talero Gutierrez & Saade-Lemus, 2018)

PSYC2022 - Perception & Cogition (16 decks)

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