Skills acquisition P2 Flashcards
Skilled Movements
-Made up of 2 elements, Cognitive - the mind and Motor, the body.
Skills which are; Learnt, Consistent, Goal-directed, Aesthetic, controlled and efficient
Classification continuum
- used to classify skills in sports, by six continuum:
- Complexity
- Environmental
- Pacing
- Muscular involvement
- Continuity
- Organisation
Complexity continuum
Simple or Complex?
Simple = little/no decision making
Complex = Decision making
e.g. Simple is a 100m breastroke, Complex is rugby tackle
Environmental continuum
Open or Closed?
Open = effected by sporting environment, use perception
Closed = not effected by sporting environment, no use of perception
e.g. Open is deciding when to take a football penalty kick, Closed is a 100m sprint
Pacing continuum
Self-paced or Externally paced?
Self Paced = at control of performer, rate of execution is decided before execution
Externally Paced = controlled by factors out of control
e.g. Self is high jump & Externally paced is returning a serve in tennis
Muscular Involvement Continuum
Fine or Gross?
Fine = uses small delicate muscle movement
Gross = uses large muscle groups
e.g. Fine is darts and gross is sprinting
Continuity continuum
Discrete, Serial or Continous?
Discrete = short, clear begging and end
Serial = several discrete elements
Continous = ‘kinaesthetic’, no clear beginning or end
e.g. discrete is 80m hurdles, serial is netball shoot and Continous is swimming a 100m race
Organisation continuum
Low organised or highly organised?
Low organised = can be broken down into subroutines
Highly organised = can’t be broken down into subroutines due to speed of execution
e.g. LO is netball shot and HO is pole vault
Whole practise
- Full skill is practiced at once
- GOOD for Highly organised, simple, discrete and closed skills
e. g. Pole vault
Part practise
- Skill broken into subroutines and then practised
- GOOD for low organised, complex and dangerous skills, it promotes safety
- keeps links between subroutines
e. g. Rugby tackle, hug and then pull ring of steel down to knees
Whole-Part-Whole Practise
- Skill is performed fully, then an element/subroutine is practised and then skill is practiced fully.
e. g. A Handstand
Progressive-Part practise
- involves learning several subroutines to form a whole movement.
- each part is practised with the next link added each time, then pieced together - ‘Chaining’
- good 4 low organised
Massed practice
- no rest intervals between component of training
- Promotes high levels of fitness and motivation
- good for motivated, fit players, simple and discrete skills.
Distributed practice
- rest intervals given to allow for recuperation.
- good for unfit, beginners and unmotivated players.
Varied Practise
- use of different methods to achieve learning goals in different situations.
- gives ability to adapt a skill with variations
- good for open skills, allows player to make decisions, Complex skills as it develops perception
Fixed Practise
- Involves stable and predictable environment, conditons remain fixed.
- Good for closed skills due to no environmental changes
Transfer of learning
-Learning and performance of one skill can be affected by the learning and performance of another
Positive transfer
-learning one task is enhanced by learning another task
- e.g. learning a golf stroke may be enhanced by the fact the player plays cricket.
- involves similar action & skill set
Negative transfer
- Initial stage of learning
- learning of one skill is hindered by learning another skill.
Proactive transfer
- a previously learnt skill is used to help one being developed
e. g. basketball passes can help learn netball passes
Retroactive transfer
- a previously learnt skill interferes with a skill already learned.
e. g. a netball player returns to netball after playing basketball, there may be a negative affect on their netball skills.
Bilateral Transfer
- when skills are transferred from one limb to another limb across the body.
- coaches encourage BT as it improves skills
e. g. a coach will encourage players to practice shooting on both sides.
Stages of learning
- Fitts & Posner
- We pass through 3 stages of learning
- if we understand the learners requirements we can provide suitable guidance and feedback
1st stage of learning
- Cognitive phase
- a beginner tries to work out what is required to perform a new movement e.g. A Netball shot
- Takes time to check and think about the movements
- Coach use manual and mechanical guidance, focus on extrinsic & positive feedback -> encourages
- Shortest phase - a trial and error
2nd stage of learning
-Associative phase ‘‘practise phase of learning’’
The learner compares their performance level to a elite athletes performance level
-the longest phase, most don’t progress out of it
-long practice periods & good feedback ->correct errors & perfect skill.
-Conscious control
E.g. a netball player can change her passing by stepping into the pass and keeping her elbows tucked in
Mental framework
-Builds up a mental framework
Motor programmes are coded into the memory
Use of intrinsic feedback to alter level of skill
Use verbal and visual guidance
3rd phase of learning
-Autonomous phase
Movements almost automatic -> due to practice & feedback
-Concentrate on finer details of task
Performance completed with maximum efficiency
-phase for experts -> continue to practise to remain
Strategies
used by coaches to help layers progress from early cognitive phase to final autonomous phase of learning.
Learning -> permanent change in behaviour & movement patterns
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
-Behaviourism approach, associationism
Gain feedback from a performance -> strengthens/ weakens our response to a given stimulus
Stimulus -> good response = more likely to repeat
Stimulus -> bad response = less likely to repeat
learn through trial and error -> shapes environment by manipulating behaviour & receiving rewards/reinforcement
used in teaching motor skills ->practise using feedback = stronger correct response + change incorrect responses
Learn through associating the correct response with a stimulus
Strategies to strengthen S-> R response
- Use positive reinforcement e.g. praise
- Allow early success -> develops confidence in performer
- Use mental rehearsal - continuously develops a automatic response to the stimulus
- Use whole practice -> promote fluency
Reinforcement
Complete reinforcement = a performer is rewarded everytime a correct action is produced, quickly strengthens S -> R bond
Partial reinforcement = rewarding every now and then, takes longer to strengthen S -> R bond but more valued
Negative reinforcement = performer begins to make mistakes, a coach will withdraw praise
Negative punishment - use carefully to avoid lowering confidence but trying to prevent repetition of an unwanted response.
Thorndikes laws
Link to operant conditioning, suggest that strengthening the S -> R bond will depend on:
- Law of exercise - repeating the S ->R connections is more likely to achieve the desired response
- Law of effect - if the response is followed by a pleasant consequence it is likely to be repeated, but if followed by unpleasant consequences likely to be stopped
- Law of Readiness - the performer must be physically & mentally ready to complete a task
Cognitive theory of learning ‘gestaltists view’
- against Operant conditioning, skinners work
- learning goes beyond just s->r bonds
- requires experience, the use of intellect, trial & error and insight
- Also use memory, perception and previous experience to join to reach correct responses e.g. Whole learning
- more effective to play and learn than learning the skills in isolation
Social learning theory - ‘observational’
- behaviour is copied from watching others
- humans want to be accepted & part of a group, through observation and copying behaviour it helps be socially acceptable
- Used in learning Motor skills, as we copy skills performed by others as we are motivated to reach success & be accepted by others
processes of observational learning, Bandura 1977
- Attention -must pay attention to demonstration & focus on important cues, amount paid is influenced by attractiveness of mode, status & competence of model
- Retention - must be able to remember the model that is represented, create a mental picture of the process
- Motor reproduction - must be able to imitate the skill being observed, should be matched to the capabilities of the observer
- Motivation - crucial to have if they are going to imitate the performance, external reinforcement of model will increase M
what is meant by verbal guidance?
a description of the action or activity
-often given with visual guidance
who is verbal guidance good and bad for?
good for advanced performers due to perceptual information, as well as autonomous & associative learners - verbal feedback is good to improve skill learning and development
bad for beginners - limited value
what should coaches be aware of when using verbal guidance?
don’t speak for too long -> short attention span
some movements can’t be explained -stick to visual guidance
direct verbal guidance is better in early stages to ensure that learner has a clear idea of an action
-questioning techniques can encourage personal development & develop confidence
what are the advantages of verbal guidance?
can be in form of feedback - reinforce good movements & identify errors which need to be corrected
if used properly can hold the attention of learner & used to motivate performer to learn
what are the disadvantages of verbal guidance?
can lead to information overload - performer can get distracted or confused
guidance can be inaccurate and performer may not perform the skill effectively
what is meant by visual guidance?
most common type
- showing a demonstration of how to do a skill
- can be through a video, demonstration chart etc.
- used best in cognitive phase as helps learner build up a mental image of the skill & it’s performance
what should a coach focus on when using visual guidance?
demonstration must be accurate so no possibility of building an incorrect picture or negative transfer
- avoid info overload by focusing on one or two key aspects of the skill, may only cue the performer onto 1/2 elements of a skill
- change the display to ensure the learner cues on to the right stimuli, must highlight the certain features of display to focus on relevant information
what should be considered when using visual guidance?
- accurate & hold attention
- repeated but not too time consuming
- their position in game should be considered
what are the advantages of visual guidance?
performer finds it easy to create mental image of what is required in a skill
enables a skill to be seen in different stages -> easier to develop
encourages observational learning by drawing attention to cues
what are the disadvantages of visual guidance?
demonstration could be incorrect -> performer could learn bad habits
coach may be unable to show an accurate demonstration
the visual representation may be unclear or skill production too quick for the performer to follow it effectively
what is manual/mechanical guidance?
- physical support for the performer by another person or a mechanical device. ‘physical restriction’
- the response of performer being directed physically be another person ‘forced response’
- both reduce fear and help performer grow in confidence e.g. wearing armbands
- gives performer kinaesthetic sense of activity
what should be considered before using manual or mechanical guidance?
the reduction in fear
- gives idea of kinaesthetic awareness of the motion
- can give an unrealistic feeling
- the intrinsic feedback received could be incorrect & instil bad habits or negative transfer
- there is a reduction in learners participation -> negatively affect motivation
what are some examples of the use of manual/mechanical guidance?
a coach supports a gymnast over a vault through physical contriol by holding their arms as they vault
-the use of a twist belt in trampolining - mechanical
What are the advantages of manual/machanical guidance?
- gives a great sense of safety -> helps with confidence
- used to isolate an important aspect of the skill to practise as a sub routine
what are some disadvantages of using manual/mechanical guidance?
can be over restrictive and performer will feel a lack of control over the movement
leads to a false sense of kinaethesis - not getting true sense of the skill action if using restriction or mechanical aid
what is meant by intrinsic feedback?
what are some advantages of intrinsic feedback?
feedback is readily available -> movements can be corrected or altered immediately
-doesn’t need to rely on others & if in autonomous stage feedback is likely to be accurate & interpreted correctly -> improved performance
what are some disadvantages of intrinsic feedback?
can lead to inaccurate interpretation if performer is in cognitive stage or unable to interpret info provided by body
performance can deteriorate through incorrect interpretation
what is meant by extrinsic feedback?
feedback that comes from external sources e.g. from a teacher
- can lead to improved performance and motivation, if incorrect will deteriorate with result of lower motivation
- use with care as may depend on it
what is an advantage of extrinsic feedback?
coach can give coaching points -> improvement if accurate and relevant
what are the disadvantages of extrinsic feedback?
innacurate feedback can negatively affect performance & result in negative transfer
if source is unreliable, motivation can drop
doesn’t encourage as much kinaethesis awareness
what is meant by positive feedback?
reinforces skill learning and gives information about a successful outcome
-often extrinsic and rewards performer via praise or positive comments
what are the advantages of positive feedback?
leads to positive reinforcement -> enables correct S-R bonds to be formed
extremely motivating as builds self esteem and confidence in performer
what are the disadvantages of positive feedback?
if underserved, may build inappropriate S-R bonds -> performance will deteriorate
some don’t respond well to praise & may ignore feedback -> hinder performance & learning
what is meant by negative feedback?
information about an unsuccessful outcome, which can be used to build more successful strategies
-can be in form of criticism & concentrate on poor aspects of performance and results
what is an advantage of negative feedback?
some are motivated well by negative feedback & may result in more determined performer
-clear on aspects which need improvements
suited to autonomous learners -> require further refinement of skills
what is the disadvantage of negative feedback?
can be demotivating to performer, especially if in cognitive stage or take criticism badly
can be detrimental to learning if feedback is inaccurate
what is meant by knowledge of results?
-external feedback
comes from performer seeing the result of their response or from another person
-important to know what the result of the action has been
-without -> little learning
what is meant by knowledge of performance?
feedback about the pattern of movement that has been taken, or is taking place
-can be external -> gained through kinaesthetic awareness, especially if highly skilled & knows what a good performance feels like
what makes feedback effective?
a limited amount of information
immediacy
related to the individual
facilitating intrinsic feedback/ kinaesthesis
what is meant by memory trace?
when the brain cells retain or store information
what is meant by encoding?
the conversion of information into visual, auditory and semantic codes
what is meant by storage?
refers to retention of information over a period of time
what is meant by retrieval?
involves recovering the stored information
-successful retrieval depends on previous experiences & how well encoded it was
what is the multi store model of memory?
-Schiffren & Atkinson
-selective attention filter allows for relevant information to be filtered through into the short term memory and irrelevant information is lost or forgotten
-all relevant information passes
through the short term memory
-chunking allows for more info to be in STM
-info needs to be rehearsed before it can be stored in long term memory
what is meant by the short term sensory stores?
info as stimuli enters the brain from environment
store has large capacity but a duration of up to 1 second before it is filtered
-filtering takes place in stimulus identification stage
-selective attention takes place, important in sport, quick reactions depend on being able to concentrate on important info
what is meant by short term memory store?
- limited capacity of 7+/-2 items
- stored for up to 30 seconds -> extended through imagery or sub vocal reptition
- chunking can improve info held as puts pieces of info in chunks to remember
- if information is considered as important & rehearsed -> into long term memory
what is meant by long term memory?
-unlimited capacity
-stores info for long period of time, info has been encoded -> associating with info/meanings
meaningless items are not stored for long
-motor programmes are stored in ltm as they have been rehearsed many times -> continous rehearsel allows for a skill to be almost automatic, can be referred to as ‘overlearning’
-recall of info passes from long term memory to short term
what is craik & lockhart’s level of processing?
-1972
used to explain how memory works and opposes the view that there are set memory store shown by the msm.
-seeks to explain what is done with the information, how deeply we process info dictates how long the memory lasts
-info is remembered more if it is considered, understood and has meaning
-meaning of information is more important
-depth of processing, relates to how much the info is considered
what are the three levels identified in Craik & Lockharts levels of processing?
- Structural level - paying attention to what the words look like, shallow
- Phonetic level - processing the sounds of words
- Semantic level - considers the actual meaning of the word, deepest level
instructions & demonstrations need to be able to show or elicit meaning from the activity - the more the information means to the performer, the more likely it is they will remember it
what are the advantages of the msm model?
Simplifies the memory process to aid understanding
Explains how those with brain damage may have dysfunctional memory or amnesia showing a distinction between short term and long term memory
what are the disadvantages of msm model?
too simplified - doesn’t explain why we remember different types of information
Doesn’t effectively prove the distinction between the short term and long term memory & does not effectively explain the interaction between short term and long term memory
what are the advantages of levels of processing?
explains well that if we understand some information, we are more likely to remember it
explains well that the longer we consider & analyse the information, the more we remember the information
what are the disadvantages of levels of processing?
the longer time it takes to process information doesn’t always lead to better recall
difficulty in defining what ‘deep’ processing actually involves, little to define as what is meant by ‘deeply’
doesn’t account for individual differences
how can we relate the memory models to sport?
improving memory through:
- Rehearsal
- Meaningfulness
- Association
- Avoiding overload
- Organise information
- Mental imagery
