anatomy & physiology P1 Flashcards
1
Q
Skeletal system function
A
protection for internal organs e.g. ribs protect heart & lungs
site of blood cell production
mineral store
provides attachment for muscles
act as levers & pivot points creating movement
2
Q
bone type
A
flat bones - suitable site for muscular attachment e.g. sternum & ribcage
Long bones - act as levers for movement, sites for blood cell production e.g. Femur
irregular bones - vertebrae, protect spinal cords
short bones - patella, ease joint movement & resist compression
3
Q
skeletal system - bones to know
A
learn most
4
Q
joint def
A
an area of a body where two or mire bines articulate to create human movement
5
Q
joint components
A
Ligaments - elastic connective tissue, b2b, stabilises movement
Synovial fluid - lubricating liquid, reduces friction, nourishes articular cartilage
Articular cartilage - smooth tissue covers surface of articulating bines, absorbs shock, allows for friction free movement
joint capsule - fibrous sac, w inner synovial membrane, encloses & strengthens the joint, secretes synovial fluid
bursa - fluid filled sac where tendons rub over bones. reduces friction
6
Q
synovial joint types
A
hinge pivot condyloid ball & socket saddle gliding
7
Q
hinge joint
A
motion in one plane flexion extension knee elbow ankle limits sideways movements as bone held tightly by ligament
8
Q
pivot joint
A
rounded bone articulates with ring shaped bone movement in one plane supination pronation radio-ulnar joint
9
Q
condyloid joint
A
flat bones allow motion in 2 planes flexion extension circumduction abduction adduction wrist
10
Q
Ball & Socket joint
A
ball shaped head articulates with a cup shaped socket large range of movement all 3 planes plantar-flexion dorsi-flexion abduction adduction flexion extension rotation hip, shoulder,
11
Q
saddle joint
A
thumb joint
allows for all movement
12
Q
gliding joint
A
intercarpal joints
bones glide over each other
13
Q
Plane of movement
A
the description of three dimensional movements at a joint
14
Q
Planes
A
sagittal
frontal
transverse
15
Q
Sagittal plane
A
lies vertically divides into left & right flexion extension e.g. bicep curl dorsi-flexion plantar-flexion can also occur at wrist as well as knee, ankle, elbow and hip
16
Q
frontal plane
A
lies vertically divides body into anterior & posterior abduction adduction e.g. lateral raises
17
Q
transverse plane
A
lies horizontally divides into superior & inferior horizontal flexion horizontal extension e.g. backwards swing of discus
18
Q
flexion
A
decreases joint angle
19
Q
extension
A
increases joint angle
20
Q
dorsi-flexion
A
toes move up (towards back) closer towards tibia
decreases joint angle
21
Q
plantar-flexion
A
toes move down away from tibia
increases joint angle
22
Q
rotation
A
articulating bones turn about their longitudinal axis
23
Q
Adduction
A
limbs move towards midline of body
24
Q
Abduction
A
limbs move away from midline of body
25
horizontal flexion
limb moves towards the midline of the body parallel to the ground
26
horizontal extension
limb moves away from the midline of the body parallel to the ground
27
Muscles exert?
power
makes small adjustments for balance, whether our body is in rest or motion
Action requires co-ordination of skeletal muscles to contract, creating a pull force bringing two body parts closer together
28
Tendons
Attach muscles to bone
| transmit the pull force created by the muscle to move the bones
29
Origin
the point of muscular attachment to a stationary bone which stays relatively fixed during muscular contraction
30
Insertion
the point of muscular attachment to a moveable bone which gets closer to the origin during muscular contraction
31
Agonistic muscle action
work in pairs - co ordinated movement
| diff roles which change, depending on type of movement produced
32
Agonist
the muscle responsible for creating the movement
| 'prime mover'
33
Antagonist
muscle that opposes the agonist
| gives resistance
34
Fixator
stabilises one part of a body
35
example of agonistic muscle pairs
Kicking a football, the quadriceps group is agonist - extension of knee, pulls lower leg into a straight position.
Hamstring group act as antagonist, co-ordinates movement
Fixator is the gluteus maximus
36
Agonistic muscle pairs - flexion (swap for extension)
```
Wrist = Wrist flexors - Agonist, Extensors - Antagonist
Elbow = Biceps Brachii - Agonist, Triceps Brachii - Antagonist
Shoulder = Anterior deltoid - Agonist, Posterior deltoid - Antagonist
Hip = illiopsoas - Agonist, Gluteus Maxmimus - Antagonist
knee = biceps femoris - Agonist, Rectus femoris - Antagonist
ankle = tibialis anterior - Agonist, Gastrocnemius & Soleus - Antagonist
```
37
Muscular system - overall
38
The quadricep muscle group
```
Adductor longus
Rectus Femoris
Vastus Intermedius
Vastus lateralis
Vastus medialis
inner thigh - Pectinus, iliopsoas
```
39
the hamstring group
Biceps femoris
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
(dinosaurs)
40
Muscle contraction types
Isotonic - concentric, eccentric
Isometric
muscle uses energy to create a force, creating human movement by contracting.
41
Isotonic contraction
when a muscle changes length during its contraction
| can be eccentric or concentric
42
Isometric contraction
when a muscle contracts but does not change length
| e.g. posture being maintained, plank
43
Concentric contraction
muscle shortens producing tension
pulls two bones closer together
e.g. flexion in bicep curl
44
Eccentric contraction
muscle lengthens producing tension
resists forces
e.g. extension in bicep curl
45
Muscle fibre types
Type 1 - Slow oxidative
Type 2a - fast oxidative glycolytic
Type 2B/2X - Fast glycolytic
genes determine the mix, training can influence
can increase size of fibres through muscular training - hypertrophy = increase in number & size of myofibrils per fibre
46
Slow oxidative
type 1
store oxygen in myoglobin -> process in mitochondria.
High Myoglobin content ->Aerobic
High Mitochondria density -> more oxygen processed
Low force of contraction
Slow speed of contraction
LOW PC STORE
Endurance: Marathon, triathlon & cross-country skiing
47
Fast oxidative glycolytic
work under anaerobic intensities
large stores of PC -> rapid energy production
Moderate mitochondria density & Myoglobin content
Fast speed & high force of contraction
Moderate aerobic & anaerobic capacity
high intensity athletes 800-1500m, 200m freestyle
48
Fast glycolytic
```
type 2x (2b)
anaerobic intensities
Large stores of PC
Low mitochondria density & myoglobin content
Fast speed & high force of contraction
Low aerobic capacity
High anaerobic capacity
Explosive athletes: 60-100m sprinting, javelin, Long jump
```
49
Skeletal muscle contraction
contract w stimulated by an electrical impulse
motor neurones = specialised cells, transmit nerve impulses rapidly to grps of muscle fibres
MN have cell body in brain/sc with an extending axon -> connects motor end plates to a group of muscle fibres.
MN and Muscle fibres = Motor unit
50
Motor unit
```
function - carry nerve impulses from brain and sc to muscle fibres.
an electrochemical process - relies on an action potential to conduct nerve impulse
action potential (+ve)sends electrical charge down axon to the motor end plates.
```
51
Synaptic cleft
the neuromuscular junction = axons motor end plates meet the muscular fibres
The small gap between MEP & Muscular fibre = synaptic cleft
Action potential triggers release of acetylcholine - NT to help the action potential cross the gap
if enough NT is released & charge is above a threshold = muscle action potential is fired.
52
All or none law
a motor unit recieves a stimulus -> action potential = threshold charge -> all muscle fibres in motor unit will contract at the same time w maximum force
if the action potential =/ reach threshold charge -> none of the muscle fibres will contract
53
Heart structure
double pump
4 chambers: RA,RV,LA,LV -separate o2 blood & non o2 blood
thick left muscular wall - more force to contract, circulates o2 blood
right side circulates non o2 blood from body to lungs
Atrio-ventricular valves
semi-lunar valves (V & exiting blood vessels)-> prevent back flow of blood
54
Systemic Circuit
the circulation of blood through the aorta to the body & Vena Cava back to the heart
carries o2 blood to body
carries non o2 blood back to heart
55
pulmonary circuit
the circulation of blood through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and pulmonary vein back to the heart
carries non o2 blood to lungs
carries o2 blood back to heart
56
What does the Cardiovascular system look like?
57
The path of blood: left side
Blood is O2 @ lungs -> the left atria through pulmonary vein
O2 blood moves from LA through left AV valve into LV
Left ventricle forces blood out of heart into Aorta
Aorta carries O2 blood to muscles & organs
58
the path of blood through heart: right side
de o2 blood from organs & muscles arrive back @ Right atria through the vena cava
Blood moves from RA through Right AV valve into RV to be forced out of heart -> pulmonary artery
Pulmonary artery carries deO2blood to lungs
59
Conduction system defined
a set of structures in the cardiac muscle which create & transmit electrical impulse, forcing the atria & ventricles to contract
60
Myogenic defined
the capacity of the heart to generate it's own electrical impulse -> causes cardiac muscle to contract
61
The conduction system
structures which pass the electrical impulse through the cardiac muscle, in a co-ordinated fashion
1. Sino-Atrial node 'pacemaker'- generates impulse & fires to Atria walls -> contract
2. Atrio-ventricular node -> collects impulse and delays for 0.1 s -> allow atria to stop contracting -> releases to bundle of His
3. Bundle of His -> in septum of heart, splits into two -> distributes impulse down each ventricle
4. Bundle branches -> carry the impulse to base of V.
5. Purkyne fibres -> distribute the impulse through ventricle walls causing them to contract
62
Diastole
the relaxation phase of cardiac muscle where the chambers fill with blood
63
Systole def
the contraction phase of the cardiac muscle where the blood is forcibly ejected into Aorta & Pulmonary artery
64
the cardiac cycle
the process of cardiac muscle contraction & the movement of blood through it's chambers
1 complete cycle represents the sequence of events involved in a single heartbeat
at rest, 1 cycle = 0.8 seconds
two phases
65
Cardiac diastole
relaxation of the cardiac muscle
| first atria then the ventricles
66
Cardiac systole
contraction of cardiac muscle
| first atria then ventricles
67
Atrial and Ventricular diastole
- chambers expand & draw in blood
- pressure in atria increases -> opens AV valves
- Blood passively enters the ventricles
- SL valves close to prevent blood leaving heart
68
Atrial systole
atria contact -> force blood into ventricles
69
Ventricular systole
ventricles contract -> increase in pressure -> close AV valves to prevent backflow -> SL valves open -> blood is ejected into the aorta and pulmonary artery.
70
how does the conduction system control the cardiac cycle?
- conduction system -> creation & passing of an electrical impulse through cardiac muscle
- forms a single heart beat, 72 times per minute @ rest
71
What does a normal ECG trace look like? + the cardiac events involved
no electrical impulse = causes diastole,
SA node fires electrical impulse = causes atrial systole
Bundle of His splits & passes the message to ventricles = Causes ventricular systole
72
Heart rate
represents number of cardiac cycles in one minute
number of times the heart beats per minute
AVG 70BPM
the lower - the more efficient the cardiac muscle
affected by genetics, gender and fitness
73
Stroke volume
the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle per beat (ventricular systole)
resting SV is approx 70ml - higher in trained athletes
depends on venous return and ventricular elasticity & contractility
74
cardiac output (Q)
HR X SV =Q
The volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle per minute
resting Q is approx 5L/min
For athletes Q is similar to average due to cardiac hypertrophy -> Cardiac muscle more effecient
75
Bradycardia
A resting heart rate of below 60bpm
76
Venous return
the return of blood to the right atria through the veins
77
Sub-maximal
low to moderate intensity of exercise within a performer's aerobic capacity
78
Maximal
high intensity exercise above a performers aerobic capacity that will induce fatigue
79
Monitoring heart rate, cardiac output and stroke volume is good for?
assessing the efficiency
maximising aerobic performance
enable us to live an active, balanced and healthy lifestyle
80
method to work out max heart rate
MAX HR = 220-AGE
81
Examples of athletes with bradycardia
Tour de france Miguel Indurain - 28bpm
Alistair brownlee - 34bpm
Paula radcliffe - mid 40BPM
82
Ventricular elasticity and contractilty
the degree of stretch in the cardiac muscle fibres
| the greater the stretch, the greater the force of contraction which will raise the SV
83
Trained values for HR,SV AND Q AT REST
50BPM
100ML
5L/MIN
84
Untrained values for HR,SV AND Q AT REST
72BPM
70ML
5L/MIN
85
How does the cardiac system respond to exercise and recovery?
exercise - demand for 02^ by muscle, role to increase o2 blood flow 2 muscles, response depends on sub-maximal and maximal
recovery - lowers heart rate, sv as less o2 is demanded to the muscles
86
How does Cardiac output respond to exercise?
Q ^ inline with exercise intensity & plateaus during maximal exercise
In recovery, a rapid decrease of Q then followed by slower decrease to resting levels
can depend on Starling's law
87
What is starling's law?
Increased venous return leads to an increased stroke volume, due to an increased stretch of the ventricle walls and force of contraction
88
Untrained values @ submaximal exercise
130BPM
120ML
15L/Min
89
Untrained values @ maximal exercise
220-agebpm
120ml
30L/min
90
Trained values @ sub-maximal exercise
120bpm
200ml
20l/min
91
Trained values @maximal exercise
220-age bpm
200ml
40l/min
92
how does HR respond to exercise?
HR increases proportionately to the intensity of exercise until reached the maximal intensity
-Sub-maximal intensity, HR plateaus as we reach a comfortable steady state
93
What does the plateau during sub-maximal steady state exercise mean?
it shows the supply meeting the demand for oxygen delivery and waste removal.
94
What happens to the HR during waste removal?
An initial anticipatory rise in HR prior to the release of hormone adrenaline
A rapid increase in HR @ start to increase blood flow & oxygen delivery in line with intensity
A steady state HR throughout the sustained intensity exercise as o2 meets demand
A initial rapid decrease in HR as enter recovery & muscle pump reduces
A more gradual decrease in HR to resting levels
95
How does Stroke Volume respond to exercise?
SV increases in proportion to intensity until a plateau is reached @40-60% of working capacity - for sub-maximal
96
Stroke volume can increases because of ...
Increased venous return -> greater volume of blood returning to the heart & filling the ventricles -> due to squeezing action of muscle pump
The starling mechanism - an increased end-diastolic volume in the ventricles -> greater stretch in V walls -> increased force of contraction
97
Stroke volume reaches a plateau during sub-maximal exercise due to:
Increased heart rate towards maximal intensities doesn't allow time for ventricles to completely fill with blood in the diastolic phase -> limiting the starling mechanism
98
Stroke volume is maintained during early recovery as ...
heart rate rapidly reduces & maintains blood flow and removal of waste products while lowering the stress and the workload on the cardiac muscle
99
Heart rate regulation
the cardiac control centre is involved in increasing / decreasing the heart rate
100
autonomic nervous system
involuntary regulates HR & determines firing rate of SA node
101
the cardiac control centre (C.C.C.)
located in the medulla oblongata, in brain
recives information from sensory nerves
sends directions through motor nerves to change the HR
Actions increase or decrease in stimulation of the SA NODE - Can raise or lower the HR
IF increase - sypmathetic nervous system actioned -> release adrenaline
102
three control mechanisms of c.c.c.
Neural control - chemoreceptors, baroceptors, proprietors
Intrinsic control
Hormonal control
103
Neural control - control mechanisms
Chemoreceptors - in muscles, arota and carotid arteries, detect chemical changes (O2 AND LA)
Baroreceptors - detect changes in blood pressure, in blood vessel walls
Proprioceptors - detect changes in muscular activity, in muscles, tendons and joints
104
Intrinsic control- control mechanisms
- Temperature changes will affect the viscosity of blood & speed of nerve impulse transmission
- Venous Return changes will affect the stretch in ventricle walls, force of ventricular contraction & stroke volume
105
Hormonal control - control mechanisms
Adrenaline & Noradrenaline are released from the adrenal glands
increase force of ventricular contraction & increasing the spread of electrical activity throughout the heart
106
HR regulation in response to recovery
chm: ^co2 & lactic acid levels
prp: decreased motor activity
brp: decreased stretch on vessel walls
IC: decreased temperature & venous return
HC: parasympathetic inhibition of adrenaline & noradrenaline
-> Parasympathetic NS decreases stimulation of SA NODE via vagus nerve to decrease HR
107
HR regulation in response to exercise
chp; ^co2 levels and lactic acid
brp: ^ stretch on vessel walls
prp: ^motor activity
IC: ^ temperature & venous return
HC: sympathetic release pf adrenaline & noradrenaline
->sympathetic NS increases stimulation of SA node via the accelerator nerve to increase HR
108
Vascular system
network of blood vessels
carry blood in one direction
ensures o2 & nutrients are delivered to all respiring cells for energy production & waster is removed efficiently
blood consists of 45% cells & 55% plasma -> transports nutrients & glucose, fights disease and maintains the internal stability of the body & regulate temperature
109
Arteries & Arterioles
transport O2 blood from the heart to muscles and organs
| large layer of smooth muscle
110
Capillaries
bring blood slowly to contact with the muscle & organ cells for gaseous exchange
single layer of cells - allow gas, nutrient and waste exchange
111
Veins & Venules
transports deo2 blood from the muscles & organs back to the heart.
Venules leaving the capillary reconnect to form veins
veins carry slow moving blood at low pressure
one way pocket valve - prevents backflow
112
Venous return mechanism
the return of blood to the heart though the venules and veins back to the right atrium.
@Rest, blood pressure & structure will maintain venous return
@exercise, a greater demand for o2 blood requires a far greater venous return to increase SV & Q
113
Mechanisms of venous return
Pocket valves - prevent backflow of blood
Smooth muscle - vasoconstricts to create venomotor tone -> aids in movement of blood
Gravity - blood from upper body is helped to return by gravity
Muscle pump - skeletal muscles contraction compressing the vein between them.
Respiratory pump - a pressure difference between the thoracic and abdominal cavity is created
114
Blood pooling
the result of not enough pressure to return the majority of blood back to the heart
blood sits in the picket valves & pool
-> feelings of dizziness and light headedness.
-> feeling of heavy legs after exercise
use active recovery to avoid blood pooling
115
How does the redistribution of Q work?
Q can rise to more than 2l/min during intense exercise, the difference is where the blood is sent to
At rest, our body serves to digest, filter & excrete and most o2 blood is around the organs
during exercise, demand from the muscles for o2 increases -> higher intensity = higher demand
Regardless of intensity our heart has it's own coronary blood supply to maintain
116
How blood flow is distributed to organs - diagram
117
How does skeletal muscle pump work?
- peripheral veins have one way valves that direct flow away from limbs & to the heart (one vein in legs &arms)
- As surrounding muscles contract, veins compress and propels blood through open distal valves, stopping flow to muscles
- Veins also decompress -> distal valves open and blood flows into the vein
118
how does Inspiratory pump work?
an increase in the rate & depth of respiration -> venous return -> enhancing Q
- affects VR through changes in the Right atrial pressure
- increase in RA pressure = stops venous return
- decrease in RA PRESSURE = allows for venous return
- the pressure changes are between the pressures of the thoracic and abdominal cavities
119
Why is the Vascular shunt mechanism useful?
- when an increase in demand of oxygen & nutrients for the muscles for respiration is needed
- when an increase in the speed of waste removal is needed
120
What is the Vascular shunt mechanism?
it is the redistribution of blood during exercise
121
Vasomotor control center
brain
| controls vascular shunt mechanism
122
Chemoreceptors role
to detect chemical changes in the blood
123
Baroceptors role
to detect changes in blood pressure
124
Proprioceptors role
to detect changes in muscular activity
125
What are precapillary sphincters?
muscles at junctioins between arterioles and capillaries
| can vasoconstrict and vasodilate
126
What is sympathetic stimulation?
it controls the diameter or arterioles and precapillary sphincters
127
How the vascular shunt works during exercise
chemoreceptos detect decrease in blood PH, Baroceptors detect increase in blood pressure and proprioceptors detect increase in muscle activity -> info sent to V.C.C. -> increases Sympathetic stimulation of arterioles &PCS towards organs to reduce diameter & blood flow -> decreases SS in arterioles & PCS towards the muscles increasing diameter and blood flow to working muscles
128
How the vascular shunt mechanism works during recovery
Chemoreceptors detect ^ in blood PH, Barorecptors detect dec^ in blood pressure and Proprioceptors detect dec^ in muscle activity -> info sent to V.C.C. -> decreases SS of arterioles & PCS going towards organs to ^ diameter and blood flow -> ^ SS of arterioles &PCS going towards muscles and dec^ diameter and blood flow
129
Respiratory system functions
Pulmonary ventilation
Gaseous exchange
CV system provides a link by transporting deO2blood to lungs
130
The respiratory system
Nasal cavity & mouth -> Pharynx -> oesophagus (epiglottis - flap of skin)-> Larynx -> Trachea -> Right & Left bronchus -> Bronchioles -> Alveoli
lungs covered by intercostal muscles and diaphragm beneath creates a vacuum
131
How does expiration happen?
intercostal muscles relax -> ribcage moves down & inwards -> diaphragm relaxes to dome shape -> volume of air in lungs to decrease -> lungs decrease in size as squeezed by ribs & diaphragm -> pressure inside lungs increases & atmospheric air pressure is lower than our lungs -> Pressure gradient pushes air out of lungs through nose and mouth
132
Accessory expiratory muscles
Internal intercostals
| Rectus abdominis
133
Accessory inspiratory muscles
Sternocleidomastoid
| pectoralis Minor
134
How does inspiration happen?
intercostals contract & pull ribcage upwards and outwards -> diaphragm contracts into a flat shape -> increase in volume and size of lungs -> decreased the pressure inside lungs -> higher atmospheric pressure -> air sucked through nose & mouth cavitity
135
How is oxygen transported by the blood?
it's combined with haemoglobin in red blood cells -97% of oxygen transport
-can be dissolved in blood plasma - only 3% of oxygen transport
136
Gas transport
O2 is transported from alveoli to cells to be in aerobic respiration
Endurance athletes are efficient at O2 Transport
1. O2 + Hb (Haemoglobin) = HbO2 (Oxyheamoglobin)
2. CO2 is removed from cells as carbonic acid -> CO2 +H20 = H2CO3
137
Haemoglobin info
can transport up to 4 O2 molecules - if 4 bind, 100% saturated - if less than 4 = partially saturated
O2 binding occurs as a response to high Partial O2 pressure in the lungs
O2+Hb = Oxyhaemoglobin
Haemoglobin not bound to O2 -> deoxyhaemoglobin
138
Breathing rate
the amount of times inspiration/expiration has been completed in a minute
F
Average is 12-15 per min
139
Tidal volume
TV
the volume of air inspired or expired per breath
Average is 500ml
350ml in lungs
150ml fills airways
can change with Age, Gender, Body composition and training.
140
What does a spirometer do?
measures lung volumes
| total lung capacity is calculated by adding vital capacity and the residual volume
141
Inspiratory respiratory volume
the maximal volume that can be inhaled from the end-inspiratory level
AVG is 300ml, no change during exercise
142
Minute ventilation
VE
the volume of air inspired/expired per minute
FXTV = VE
AVG is 67L/min, changes to 150l/min during exercise
143
Expiratory respiratory volume
the maximal volume of air that can be exhaled from the end-expiratory position
AVG 1250ml, no change during exercise
144
Residual volume
lung volume that is not decreases with inspiration or expiration
1250ML, no change
145
Untrained respiratory values
F -> 12-15b/m
TV -> 500ml
VE -> 7l/min
146
Trained respiratory values
F -> 11-12B/MIN
TV -> 500ml
VE -> 6l/min
147
breathing rate in relation to exercise
breathing frequency ^ with intensity
TV ^ up to 3 litres but plateaus towards max intensity - short & shallow breaths in marathons
VE increases in line with TV and F - plateau as reach a steady state,
148
the respiratory control centre
location: medulla oblongata
controls breathing
^ concentration of CO2 in blood -> RCC to ^ respiratory rate
divides into inspiratory centre & exhibitory centre - control muscles used for inspiration + expiration
IC - controls intercostal nerve and phrenic nerve
149
Regulation of respiration at rest
stimulation of intercostal nerve & phrenic nerve -> chest capacity ^ in volume -> non stimulation 2 seconds later -> passive expiration
Breathing is deep and slow
150
Regulation of respiration during exercise
changes detected by chemoreceptors, baroreceptors and proprioceptors.
Chemoreceptors - detects change in Blood PH, acidity increases as a result of increase in plasma concentration of CO2 and LA production
Baroreceptors - detect increases in blood pressure
Proprioceptors - detect change in muscular activity, movement in muscles & joints
151
Inspiration during regulating respiration
Chemoreceptors, Baroreceptors and Proprioceptors detect changes and inform the IC -> stimulates phrenic nerve + intercostal nerves to contract w more force -> Sternocleidomastoid and Pectoralis minor increase depth and rate of inspiration
152
Expiration during regulating respiration
stimulation occurs and abdominal muscles are recruited with the internal intercostals.
Stretch receptors form the EC when lung inflation increases and the lungs are excessively stretched
breathing is shallow and fast
153
Partial pressure
the amount of pressure contributed by a gas within a mixture of gases
154
Sites of Gaseous exchange
Alveolar capillaries - (external) pressure gradient of 60mmHG -> diffusion of O2 to HB
Muscular site - internal, O2 moves from blood capillary (PO2 = 46mmHg) to muscle capillary (PO2 = 40mmHg)
if PO2 is high, HB will readily bind with O2
Higher partial pressures help saturate Hb with O2
155
Gaseous exchange during exercise
-^ the volume of O2 and CO2 present
O2 diffusion gradient increases from 100mmHg -> 5mmHg
CO2 diffusion gradient increases from 80mmHg -> 40mmHg
A higher po2 - more readily HB binds with O2 - happens when PO2 is more than 100mmHg due to HbO2 dissociation curve
156
Principles of Diffusion
A gas will always move from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure
Atmospheric air - Nittrogen 79%, O2 21% and CO2 0.03%
157
Partial pressure of gas
Pressure is measured in millimetres of mercury - mmHg
| atmospheric air pressure is 760mmHg
158
Oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve
the relationship between partial pressure of oxygen and saturation of oxyhaemoglobin
159
what does the binding of O2 to Hb depend on?
the partial pressure of O2 in blood
| Affinity between Hb and O2
160
What is the Bohr Shift?
the movement of the dissociation curve to the right
161
What is the Bohr Shift a result of?
An increase in blood acidity
Increase in partial pressure of O2
Increase in temperature
162
In areas of high partial pressure, O2 is .... to haemoglobin
readily bound
163
In areas of low partial pressure, O2 is ... from Hb as the surrounding environment has a ..... for it's presence
1. released
| 2. Higher demand
164
What is the agonist when flexion occurs at the hip?
iliopsoas
165
What is the agonist during extension at the hip?
gluteus maximus
166
what is the predominant muscle fibre type used by a discus thrower to achieve max distance?
Fast glycolytic
| Type 2A
167
WHAT ARE THE MUSCLES ARE THE SHOULDER JOINT?
```
deltoid
latissimus dorsi
pectoralis major
trapezius
teres minor
```
168
What are the muscles at the elbow joint?
biceps brachii
| triceps brachii
169
What are the muscles at the wrist?
wrist flexors
| wrist extensors
170
What are the muscles at the hip joint?
iliopsoas
gluteus maximus, medius and minimus
adductor longus, brevis and magnus
171
What are the muscles of the quadriceps group?
rectus femoris
vastus lateralis
vastus intermedius
vastus medialis
172
what are the muscles of the hamstring group?
biceps femoris
semi-membranosus
semi -tendinosus
173
what are the muscles at the ankle?
tibialis anterior
soleus
gastrocnemius
