Skill Acquisition Flashcards
What is a stimulus?
Information/cues detected by a performer from the environment which results in a response. It relates to associationalist/connectionist theory
Describe the single channel capacity theory
Theory stating that the brain can only deal with one stimulus at a time. Linked to psychological refractory period
What is When one skill helps the learning (and performance) of another?
Positive transfer
Describe serial processing and give an example
Information that is processed in stages such as in trampolining
What is optimising transfer?
Maximising the effect of transfer on learning and performance
A condition limiting the capacity for an individual to learn or perform skills to their potential. May coincide with high anxiety
What is over arousal?
Reminiscence is
The conscious act of remembering a skill or movement experience
The S-R bond is strengthened with regular practice (in favourable conditions) and reinforcement
The law of exercise
Define the law of readiness
The S-R bond is strengthened/learning will occur only if the learner is physically and mentally able to perform the skill
What is a self paced skill? Give an example from athletics
A skill where control over the rate at which the skill is performed is determined by the performer e.g. high jump. Classified on the pacing continuum
Where the learner practises continuously without breaks or rest intervals
Massed practice
What is retroactive transfer?
When the current learning of a new skill affects the performance of a previously learned skill. Can be positive or negative
Define short term memory (STM)
Store of information often referred to as the ‘workplace’ where incoming information is compared to information in the long term memory. Limited in capacity and duration
Define motivation, including Bandura’s model
The desire to learn and succeed. Part of Bandura’s model of observational learning stating that the observer must have the drive or desire to copy the skill or behaviour of the role model e.g. must have the willpower to stop smoking in order to to develop a BAHL
A store of information
Memory
This is skill made up of subroutines that can be easily separated/isolated for practice e.g. a roll in a gymnastic sequence. Classified on the organisational continuum
Low organisation
Define over learning
Continuing to practise after a skill has been learned. This can allow the performer to shift attention to other aspects of the performance, particularly in open skills
This is the store of information that has been well-learned and practised. Capacity and duration is thought to be limitless
Long term memory (LTM)
This is the process of focusing on important cues/information from the display and filtering out irrelevant ones
Selective attention
What is Skinner’s work associated with?
You study his work on operant conditioning (a connectionist/associationalist theory of learning) which involves strengthening an S-R bond
This is a stage of information processing where information from the sensory system is detected and interpreted (perception) e.g. judging the flight of a ball in the air
Stimulus identification
Spontaneous skill difficult to pre-programme and explained by schema theory e.g. an improvised cricket shot when batting
Novel response
Define progressive part practise
Subroutines are isolated for specific practice before gradually linking parts together to finally combine the whole skill. Used to practice complex skills e.g. developing a trampoline routine
What is a serial skill?
When a number of discrete elements/subroutines are put together in a definite order to make a movement or sequence e.g. triple jump. Classified on the continuity continuum
A condition that limits the capacity/potential of an individual to learn or perform skills. The learner may appear to be ‘daydreaming’
Under arousal
Define parallel processing
Information that is processed simultaneously e.g. in an invasion game such as hockey where multiple information e.g. position of team mates, opponents, position of ball, ball speed, direction and height
What is psychomotor ability?
Linked to processing of information and putting decisions into action. They initiate movement e.g. reaction time, aiming
Define reinforcement
A process that causes behaviour or an action to reoccur
What is the law of effect?
The S-R bond is strengthened if behaviour is reinforced
What is operant conditioning?
Involves the formation and strengthening of a stimulus-response (S-R) bond through positive reinforcement, shaping behaviour, manipulating the environment, trial and error, education, use of role models
What is mental rehearsal?
When the performer runs through the movement in their mind without physically moving e.g. a sprinter who runs through a perfect race in their mind
This is a system of subconscious control without feedback. Explains how fast movements are performed. Does not allow for adjustment during action – skill adjusted at next attempt
Open loop control
What is positive feedback?
Praise given for successful performance. Can strengthen an S-R bond and an be received during or after performance. See concurrent and terminal feedback
Describe the translatory mechanism?
Information Processing – an element of Whiting’s central mechanism. Interpreted information from the perceptual mechanism arrives here for a response to be selected (in the form of a motor programme) and passed to the effector mechanism
What is manual guidance?
Involves teacher/coach holding and physically manipulating the body of a learner through the correct pattern of movement e.g. support in gymnastics or guiding an arm action in cricket. Useful at cognitive stage of learning to provide/develop kinaesthetic feel but there is a danger of becoming too reliant upon it
Define positive reinforcement
Praise, reward or encouragement used to strengthen a correct S-R bond e.g. promoting the link between exercise and being healthy
Learning that occurs after copying a demonstration. Bandura identified key elements needed to allow matching of performance – attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation
What is observational learning?
What is skill?
Characteristics: goal-directed, learned, accurate, consistent, efficient, follows a correct technical model, underpinned by ability
What is trial and error learning?
Practice where mistakes can be learned from, without extrinsic feedback e.g. repetition of a short serve to a target on the court
What is proactive transfer?
When a previously learned skill influences the learning/performance of a skill that is currently being learned. It can be positive or negative
This is information from muscles, tendons and joints. Allows us to know what position our body is in. Consists of touch, kinaesthesis and equilibrium
proprioception
What is the psychological refractory period?
Delay caused by being able to process only one piece of information at a time e.g. an attacker using a dummy pass in rugby to provide an initial stimulus (the fake) closely followed by another (the actual pass). Linked to single channel hypothesis
This is giving an unpleasant stimulus to prevent an undesired response e.g. being sent off for a dangerous tackle in football. See noxious stimulus
Punishment
This is practising or repeating a skill or performance
Rehearsal
Taking away a negative stimulus to strengthen an S-R bond e.g. disapproval shown by coach at poor passing that stops when passing improves
Negative reinforcement
This is time between onset of a stimulus to completion of the movement (response time = reaction time + movement time). Response time can be affected by many factors
response time
Define motor control
The ways in which movements are controlled/monitored by the body. Links to open and closed loop control
Define and give an example of reaction time?
Time between onset of a stimulus (e.g. gun at 100m start) and the start/initiation of the movement in response (e.g. foot leaving blocks) – from the ‘B’ of the bang to the first muscular twitch
What is mechanical guidance?
Involves the use of equipment to support the learner and shape the skill e.g. a float in swimming or trampoline harness. Useful at cognitive stage of learning as a safety aid but there is a danger of becoming too reliant upon it
This is a series of (hierarchically ordered) subroutines or plan for a whole skill that is stored in the long-term memory e.g. triple jump.
Motor programme
Define somatic arousal
The changing physiological state of the body e.g. heart rate
What is a noxious stimulus?
An unpleasant stimulus used as punishment to break an undesired learning bond e.g. being sent off for a dangerous tackle in football
A method of practising the skill in its complete form e.g. cycling
Whole practice
Define verbal guidance
Used frequently to tell the learner what to do/how to improve. Often used with visual guidance to direct attention. Important at cognitive stage of learning
Define perceptual mechanism
Information processing – an element of Whiting’s central mechanism where information from the sense organs is interpreted
This is formed when a skill is learned and allows the motor programme to be transferred from the brain (LTM) to the working muscles. Linked to motor control
Memory trace
What is perception?
Interpreting/making sense of information received
This is the use of the classification system (continua) to gain an understanding of how a particular skill is best taught e.g. a serial skill can be broken down into subroutines so they can be practised separately
task analysis
What is a skill drill? Give an example from basketball
A practice designed to shape behaviour, develop movement or allow over- learning e.g. 3 v 1 ‘keepball’ in basketball
This is Part of Bandura’s model of observational learning (after attention and retention) stating that a learner must be capable or copying the behaviour or performing the skill being demonstrated/observed e.g. a young child will be unable to perform a slam dunk in basketball
Motor reproduction
This is when the skill is practised in many different environments e.g. passing drills in a closed situation (1 to 1) moving through 3 v 1 to 2 v 1 and small sided conditioned matches to full-size competitive matches
Variable practice
What is movement time?
Time taken from starting a movement to completing it e.g. in sprinting this is the time from first applying pressure on the blocks to crossing the line
Define temporal anticipation
Predicting when something might happen e.g. predicting the gun at the 100m start
This is Isolating a subroutine for specific practice before putting the whole skill back together e.g. a long jumper working on their sprinting speed and action (run-up subroutine)
Part practice
What is the short term sensory store (STSS)?
First stage of memory model where a large amount of information is received and held for a very short time (
Define and give an example of response selection
Stage of information processing where interpreted information is used to make a decision e.g. the ball is heading to my left so I must move in that direction and catch it
Who is Whiting?
You study his model of information processing (format is similar to an arc or rainbow) and includes the terms display and central mechanisms
What is a schema and what are the 2 types?
A generalised series of movements/information and experience stored in the long-term memory that can be updated and modified e.g. a generalised throwing schema can be adapted to throwing a javelin, or kicking a football can be adapted to a conversion kick in rugby. There are recall and recognition schema
This is affected by the environment and involves decision making e.g. passing the ball in a hockey match. Classified on the environmental influence continuum
Open skill
Define practice
Repeating a movement skill or performance
Define retention in terms of Bandura’s model
Second part of Bandura’s model of observational learning stating that observer needs to remember the demonstration or movements or behaviour watched e.g. observer needs to remember information about the importance of not smoking as part of a BAHL
What is terminal feedback?
Information received about a movement after it has been completed e.g. a debrief/video analysis after a netball match
This is The feedback loop that adjusts/corrects movement under closed loop control
Perceptual trace
Describe whole-part-whole practice and give an example of where it would be used
Method of trying the whole skill before isolating a part for specific practise and then putting the whole skill together e.g. practising a 10-bounce trampoline sequence then isolating the seat drop for extra practice before repeating whole sequence again
This is information from the environment that is received through vision (eyes), audition (ears) and proprioception (touch, kinaesthesis and equilibrium)
Sensory information
This is movement produced as a result of information processing e.g. dribbling with the ball in hockey because decision making resulted in this choice
Output
This is the amount of information a performer needs to process
Perceptual load
This is the use of strategies to change behaviour and produce a desired response e.g. using praise or reward to affect the S-R bond
Shaping behaviour
Define and give an example of spatial anticipation
Predicting what will happen in the environment to gain an advantage e.g. moving to the front of the court in badminton having detected a drop shot
Define the stimulus-response bond (S-R bond)
A connection or link between a stimulus and the response made to the stimulus
Define and describe a subroutine for triple jump
Component part of a motor programme. Subroutines can be practised separately e.g. the run-up, hop, step or jump of the triple jump
This is a stage of information processing where the decision made in the response selection stage is put into action
Response programming
Define visual guidance
Helps the learner to create a mental image of the skill, especially useful at the cognitive stage of learning
What is negative feedback?
Information about how to improve a skill that has been performed with errors
This is a skill with limited decision making/information to process and few subroutines e.g. sprinting. Classified on the difficulty continuum
Simple skill
Who is Welford?
You study his model of information processing (format is like a flow chart) and includes the terms sense organs, perception and feedback
What are motivational strategies?
Ways of encouraging participation, learning and performance e.g. the use ofreinforcement, rewards, punishment, peer pressure, goal setting
What is negative transfer?
When one skill hinders or impedes the learning (and performance) of another e.g. a loose wrist action in badminton can transfer to tennis where a firm wrist is needed
What is a tangible reward?
Physical/touchable rewards that are used to motivate learners e.g. badges, medals or certificates
Describe transfer
The influence of one skill on the learning and performance of another (positive, negative, proactive, retroactive, bilateral)
What is uniqueness?
Presentation of information in an unusual way so that it is more likely to be remembered e.g. giving a strange name to a pre-rehearsed line out in rugby
Movement skills e.g. a forward roll, dribbling a basketball, throwing a shot
Motor skills
This is the sense of pressure and pain. Useful for racket grip, knowing how hard we have kicked a ball (pressure) or recognising injury (pain)
Touch
Describe optimal arousal
A state where the capacity to learn and perform is maximised relate to the inverted U theory
What are Thorndyke’s Laws?
Rules applied to connectionist theory – ways of strengthening the SR bond. Law of effect, law of exercise, law of readiness
