Skill Acquisition Flashcards
What are the characteristics of a skill?
ACE FLAG + C
Aesthetically pleasing - must look good.
Consistent - high success rate.
Efficient - least amount of energy and time.
Fluent (smooth) -
Learned - developed through practice.
Accurate - precise.
Goal-directed - clear aim in mind.
Co-ordinated - in control of movement.
What is a skill?
A learned ability to bring about predetermined results with minimum use of energy or/and time.
Open vs Closed skill.
Sporting examples
Open - is performed in an unpredictable environment = more decisions.
Passing in football.
Closed - is performed in predictable/stable environment = fewer decisions.
Shot putt.
Gross vs Fine skill.
Sporting examples.
Gross - uses large muscle groups.
Rugby tackle.
Fine - smaller muscle groups = more control and precision.
Snooker, darts.
Self-paced vs Externally paced skill.
Sporting examples.
Self-paced - performer controls the start and speed of the skill.
Penalty. Volleyball serve.
Externally paced - performer has no control over the start and the speed.
Sprint start, swimming start.
Discrete vs Serial vs Continuous skill.
Sporting examples.
Discrete - has a clear beginning and end.
Tennis serve, penalty kick.
Serial - contains several discrete skills to make a more integrated movement.
Triple jump, dance routine, trampoline.
Continuous - no clear beginning or end.
Cycling, running.
Low Organised vs Highly Organised skill.
Sporting examples.
Low - easily broken down into parts/sub-routines.
Swimming stroke (leg, arm)
Highly - not easily broken down into parts.
Football volley - quick.
Simple vs Complex skill.
Sporting examples.
Simple - requires few decisions.
Forward roll, running.
Complex - many decisions and lots of info. from environment.
Dribbling in hockey, twisting somersault.
What is the transfer of learning?
Name the 4 types.
When skills learnt in one activity affect skills in another activity.
Positive, negative, bilateral and zero.
What is positive transfer?
Sporting example.
Learning a skill facilitates the learning of an additional skills.
Netball shot helps basketball shot.
What is negative transfer?
Sporting example.
Learning a skill hinders/inhibits the learning of an additional skill.
Tennis serve and badminton serve.
Forehand clear in badminton and forehand drive in tennis.
What is zero transfer?
Sporting example.
Learning a skill has no impact on learning of an additional skill.
Swimming and rock climbing.
Rugby tackle and swimming turn.
What is bilateral transfer?
Sporting example.
Learning a skill on one side of the body is passed across to the other side.
Snooker shots - left and right hand.
Football - left and right foot.
How can a coach ensure positive transfer?
- Ensure original skill is over learned.
- Coach highlights potential transfer to performer.
- Realistic to competition practice sessions.
- Eliminate bad habits.
- Ensure they’re motivated.
What is whole practice?
Sporting example.
Practising the skill in its entirety without subroutines.
Tennis serve. Golf swing.
When is whole practice used?
- Fast, ballistic, discrete skill.
- Highly organised skill.
- Not dangerous.
Advantages of whole practice?
Disadvantages of whole practice?
- Fluency is maintained.
- Not time-consuming.
- Not ideal for cognitive learners - cannot cope entire skill at once.
- Information overload and fatigue.
What is whole-part-whole practice?
Sporting example.
Assess skill, identify weakness to practice, then put it back together.
Volleyball smash. Front crawl in swimming.
When is whole-part-whole practice used?
- Complex/fast skill
- Performer is cognitive to fix parts.
- Autonomous performer concentrating on weakness.
Advantages of whole-part-whole practice?
Disadvantages of whole-part-whole practice?
- Can receive immediate feedback.
- Corrects errors.
- Time-consuming.
- Might neglect feel of whole skill.
What is progressive-part practice?
Known as chaining, practising the first part of the skill, then adding parts gradually.
Dance routine, floor routine in gymnastics.
When is progressive-part practice used?
- Low organised skill.
- Serial.
- Complex
- Dangerous.
Advantages of progressive-part practice?
Disadvantages of progressive-part practice.
- Aids understanding of each part.
- Can rest = less fatigue and injury.
- Time consuming.
- Cannot be used with highly organised skills.
What are the 4 types of practice?
Massed, distributed, mental and varied.
What is massed practice?
When is it used?
Continuous practice without rest.
- Discrete, simple, closed skill –> no changes to skill.
- Autonomous, fit, motivated.
Advantages of massed practice?
Disadvantages of massed practice?
- Promotes fitness.
- Skill can be over learned –> habitual.
- Causes fatigue / may not be capable.
- No time for feedback.
What is distributed practice?
When is it used?
Practice with rest periods included.
- Continuous skill.
- Breaks needed to rest or relive pressure and intensity. Or to explain changes to skill.
Advantages of distributed practice?
Disadvantages of distributed practice?
- Takes pressure off performer.
- Good for cognitive - controlled progress.
- Feedback can be given.
- Time consuming - not used for fast progress.
- Not useful for autonomous wanting to over learn.
What is mental practice?
When is it used?
Going over the skill in the mind without moving.
- Complex, serial skill.
- Cognitive - clear, mental image of basics.
- Autonomous - focusing on tactics.
Advantages of mental practice?
Disadvantages of mental practice?
- Produces a clear mental image.
- Performers see themselves being successful –> increases confidence and reduces anxiety.
- Mental image must be accurate.
- Difficult if environment is not quite.
What is varied practice?
When is it used?
Practising skills and drills in a constantly changing environment.
- Open, externally paced and complex skill.
-Performer is cognitive and lacking motivation.
Advantages of varied practice?
Disadvantages of varied practice?
- Gains experience in a range of situations.
- Prevents tedium.
- Time consuming.
- Possibility of information overload and fatigue if given too many stimuli.
What are the 3 stages of learning in order?
- Cognitive
- Associative
- Autonomous
Describe the cognitive stage.
- Begins to create clear mental image of skill.
- Needs demonstrations to copy.
- Mistakes are made.
- Motor programmes are not fully formed yet.
Describe the associative stage.
- Models actions of skilled athletes.
- Must continue to practice.
- Makes fewer mistakes.
- Motor programmes are developing and to be stored in LTM.
Describe the autonomous stage.
- Movements are fluid, efficient and habitual.
- Skills are automatic and without conscious thought.
- Hardly any mistakes.
- Motor programmes are fully formed and stored in LTM.
- Can focus on fine detail and tactics.
What are the purposes of feedback?
- Reinforce correct actions.
- Correct errors.
- Eliminate bad habits.
- Build confidence.
What is positive feedback?
Feedback about what was correct so action is repeated.
What is negative feedback?
Feedback about incorrect actions so that it’s not repeated and errors are corrected.
What is extrinsic feedback?
Feedback from an outside source like a coach. Positive or negative.
What is intrinsic feedback?
Feedback from within using kinaesthesis. Positive or negative.
What is knowledge of results?
Feedback about whether the skill was successful or not. Concerns the outcome.
What is knowledge of performance?
Feedback about why the skill was successful. Concerns technique and quality of skill.
What type of feedback is good for a cognitive performer and why?
Positive - motivation and confidence.
Extrinsic - lack of knowledge.
What type of feedback is good for an associative performer and why?
Positive - motivation.
Intrinsic - start to develop kinaesthesis.
Extrinsic - know what to improve.
Knowledge of results - understand how well they’re doing.
What type of feedback is good for an autonomous performer and why?
Extrinsic - qualified coaches.
Intrinsic - immediate from themselves.
Knowledge of performance - right technique.
Negative - handle criticism to improve.
What is a learning plateau?
A period during performance when there are no signs of improvement.
Describe the 4 stages of a learning plateau.
- Learning is slow and performance is poor - cognitive stage.
- Rapid acceleration in learning - begins to master task and success rate.
- No improvement. Reached a plateau.
- Towards the end, perhaps by fatigue, performance has deteriorated.
What is drive reduction?
A drop in the rate of improvement and the performance may begin to get worse.
New challenge needed to maintain motivation.
What are some causes of a learning plateau?
Many Bees Look Towards Flowers (acronym)
- Lack of motivation - no incentives or reward.
- Boredum - repetitive movement.
- Limit of ability - full potential reached.
- Targets set too low - cannot improve if not challenged.
- Fatigue - continuous action over a long time.
What are some solutions to a learning plateau?
- More praise - from coach for motivation.
- More variety - tedium is avoided.
- Concept of plateau can be explained so they don’t take personal blame/responsibility.
- Extend task - new challenges or targets.
- Rest - to avoid fatigue.
What are the 4 types of guidance?
Visual, verbal, manual and mechanical.
What is visual guidance?
How does it occur?
Guidance that can be seen like a demonstration or video.
Performer sees the correct way to perform a skill.
Then given time to repeat it.
Advantages of visual guidance.
Disadvantages of visual guidance.
- Helps build clear mental image –> cognitive.
- Suitable for large groups of learners.
- Demonstrations must be accurate.
- Can cause information overload.
What is verbal guidance?
An explanation of a task.
Coach instructs, explains and directs key points of a skill.
Advantages of verbal guidance.
Disadvantages of verbal guidance.
- Can be given immediately during performance.
- Can be used in conjunction with visual.
- Information overload if too many instructions are given.
- Lengthy explanations = lose concentration.
- Technical terms may not be understood by cognitive.
What is manual guidance?
Sporting example.
Involves physical support.
Coach uses their own body to physically support or manipulate performer’s body.
Assisting form in badminton serve. Handstand back support.
Advantages of manual guidance.
Disadvantages of manual guidance.
- Useful in dangerous tasks.
- Reduces fear/anxiety –> builds confidence.
- If overused, performer may become over-reliant on the support.
- May feel demotivated if not performing on their own.
What is mechanical guidance?
Sporting example.
An artificial aid to provide physical support.
Float/armband in swimming or harness for trampolining.
Advantages of mechanical guidance.
Disadvantages of mechanical guidance.
- Builds confidence –> reduces fear.
- Useful in dangerous tasks.
- Useful for cognitive performers.
- If overused, performer can become over-reliant on the support.
- May feel demotivated if not performing on their own.
What is Skinner’s theory?
Operant conditioning - behaviourism.
What is operant conditioning?
Use of reinforcement to ensure correct responses are repeated.
What is the S-R bond and its role in operant conditioning?
S-R bond is the stimulus-response bond.
Learning happens by making and strengthening link between stimulus and response.
What are the key features of operant conditioning?
- Performer uses trial and error.
- Manipulate the environment to ensure successful responses.
- Reinforcement for correct response.
What are the 3 types of reinforcement in O.C? Explain.
- Positive - praise for correct action –> to be repeated.
- Negative - taking away unpleasant stimulus after the correct response –> to be repeated.
Stop criticising after correct response. - Punishment - weakening an S-R bond by giving an unpleasant stimulus –> prevent repeating.
red card, bans
What is Bandura’s theory?
Social Learning Theory - observational learning.
What does Bandura suggest in SLT?
We learn by observing and replicating actions of other models.
Significant others, models with similarities (age, gender).
What are the 4 key stages of SLT? Explain.
- Attention - highlight key area of skill.
Model must be attractive. - Retention - ability to recall demonstration in memory.
Mental image of skill in LTM. - Motor Production - must be physically fit and mentally capable of performing skill.
- Motivation - must have drive to copy and learn.
Praise and rewards can help.
What is Vygotsky’s theory?
Social Development Theory - constructivism.
What does Vygotsky claim in SDT?
We learn by association with others.
What are Vygotsky’s 3 main aspects?1
- Role of social interaction
- More knowledgable other
- Zone of proximal development
Explain the role of social interaction.
What is inter and intra-psychological learning?
Inter-psychological learning: externally learning from watching others. (e.g., watch brother play football).
Taking in advice and feedback.
Intra-psychological learning: learning from within after gaining external knowledge (e.g., play football)
What is an MKO?
A more knowledgeable other is someone with a greater understanding of the task than you do.
Informs you of technical advice and feedback.
What is the zone of proximal development?
What are the 3 stages of ZPO?
With a sporting example.
What the learner needs to do next to learn a skill/improve.
- Achieve independently without assistance.
- Achieve with help from an MKO.
- Not do at this moment in time.
e.g, can hold racket. Can contact ball with help. Cannot aim.
What is insight learning? ___ theories.
‘Gestalts’ theories.
Using experience and understanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill.
What type of practice do Gestalts believe in?
What is not effective?
Why?
Whole practice is effective.
Part learning is not.
- As kinaesthesis is maintained.
- Performer gains greater understanding of the task.
( understanding why/reasons you do things)
What are some reasons why a coach may use insight learning?
- Experiences whole activity rather than skills in isolation.
- Develops more independent learners - think more.
- Encourages creativity and decision making.
- Performer can learn to adjust movements.
What is information processing?
Performer receiving info. from sporting environment, rationalising it, deciding what to do and putting a skill into action.
What are the 4 main stages of information processing?
- Input
- Decision making
- Output
- Feedback
What is the input stage?
How is info. filtered?
Senses of touch, sight, balance, hearing and kinaesthesis gather cues from sporting environment/display.
Relevant info. filtered through selective attention –> can focus.
What is the decision making stage?
What system is engaged and why?
What is retrieved?
Decision made on what action to take.
Memory system engaged and previous experiences are reflected.
Motor programme is retrieved and sent to muscles.
What is the output stage?
Skill is produced.
What is the feedback stage?
Performer receives info. about the skill. Intrinsic or extrinsic.
____ ‘s model for information processing.
Whiting
What is the process of Whiting’s model?
Display –>…
Display –>receptor systems –> perceptual mechanisms –> translatory mechanisms –> effector mechanisms –> muscular system –> output data –> feedback.
What is the role of the receptor systems?
Senses used to receive sensory info. from display.
Touch, vision, audition, kinaesthesis, equilibrium.
What is the role of the perceptual mechanisms?
What is the DCR process?
Interprets info. from the display.
D etection - receive cue.
C omparision - cues compared to ones already stored.
R ecognition - understanding what response is required.
Why is selective attention important?
- Aids concentration.
- Improves reaction time.
- Reduces chance of info. overload in STM.
- Controls arousal levels.
What is the role of the translatory mechanisms?
Uses info. from perceptual mechanisms to make a decision on what action.
Correct response is selected in form of motor programme.
What is the role of effector mechanisms?
Transfers decision via the nervous system to the relevant muscles to complete the action.
What is the role of the muscular system?
Muscles receive impulses and are ready to perform the skill - begin to contract.
What is output data in Whiting’s model?
Movement/action is performed.
What is feedback in Whiting’s model?
Intrinsic or extrinsic feedback about skill performed.
How can a player improve their selective attention?
- Increase stimulus intensity (e.g. brighter ball)
- Practice with distractions
- Mental rehearsal to calm down arousal
WMM by ___?
Working memory model by Baddeley and HItch.
What are the 4 parts of the WMM?
- Central executive
- Episodic buffer
- Phonological loop
- Visuo-spatial sketchpad
What is the role of the central executive?
Control centre
- Has overall control of info. entering and leaving.
- Limited capacity.
- Sorts info. to relevant slave system.
What is the role of the phonological loop?
2 parts?
Deals with spoken and written material.
- Phonological loop (inner ear) - linked to speech perception.
- Articulatory control process (inner voice) - linked to speech production.
What is the role of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?
Deals with visual and spatial information.
- Used for navigation
- Manipulates visual images.
What is the role of the episodic buffer?
Acts as a backup store.
- Communicates with bothe the WM and LTM.
- Allows visual and auditory info to be chunked together.
- Holds information temporarily.
What does the short-term memory store do?
Receives info. from display via sense organs.
Selective attention –> filter infor.
Attended info –> enters STM.
What is the LTM and purpose of it?
Store of past experiences.
Motor programmes stored –> mental image of movement must be stored.
Correct/relevant info stored.
Info. in to and from STM.
Functions and characteristics of the Working memory and LTM.
Capacity and duration of WM and LTM.
Characteristics:
- WM has a limited capacity of 7+/- 2 items.
- WM has a duration of 30 seconds.
- LTM has an unlimited capacity and unlimited duration.
Function:
- Rehearsed skill –> stored as motor programme in LTM.
- WM provides memory trace –> send to LTM to compare info –> sends motor programme to WM to use in sporting situation.
Methods to ensure effective storage:
- Chunking –> involves storing info. in larger units.
- Chaining –> involves linking together pieces of info.
Both improves decision making as there are fewer pieces of info = faster recall.
- Mental rehearsal –> visualisation of the skill.
- Reinforcement –> praise after correct response.
- Enjoyable –> more enjoyed, more remembered.
- Practice –> overlearns skill –> habitual.
What is reaction time?
Sporting example.
The time from the onset of the the stimulus to the onset of the response.
Gun start –>
What is simple reaction time?
Sporting example.
1 stimulus and 1 response = reaction will be short.
Swimming starting signal –> dive.
What is choice reaction time?
Sporting example.
Several stimuli and several possible responses = reaction time will be slower.
Passing in football –> who and how.
Setting in volleyball.
What is movement time?
Sporting example.
The time from the onset of the movement to the completion of task.
Diving into pool to finishing race.
What is response time?
Sporting example.
The time taken from the onset of the stimulus to the completion of the task.
M.T + Reaction
Hearing gun to finishing race.
Using one sport, outline an example of reaction time, movement time and response time.
Reaction Time - hearing the gun start in 100m to pushing off the blocks.
Movement Time - pushing off the blocks to crossing finish line.
Response time - hearing the gun start to crossing the finish line.
Factors affecting response time:
What is Hick’s law?
Number of choices increases = response time too.
What are some strategies to improve reaction time?
- Practice –> more you train, faster your reactions are.
- Selective Attention –> focus and concentrate on relevant stimuli.
- Anticipation –> predicting movement.
- Improved fitness levels –> fitter = quicker.
- Mental rehearsal –> going over the performance in your mind.
- Warm-up –> mind and body prepared.
What is anticipation?
How is it done?
When a performer tries to pre-judge a stimulus.
Through experience, body language and positioning.
What is temporal anticipation?
Predicting WHEN the action will be performed.
Basketball - when they will shoot.
What is spatial anticipation?
Predicting WHAT action is going to be performed and WHERE.
Badminton - what type of shot and where.
Anticipation and reaction time link.
Correct and incorrect anticipation.
If anticipation is correct = improves reaction time as players have more time to perform.
If incorrect = PRP
What is the single-channel hypothesis?
Stimuli can only be processed one at a time.
Thus, second stimulus must wait until the first has been processed.
Delay increases response time / Hick’s Law.
What is the psychological refractory period?
Sporting example.
PRP occurs if a stimulus arrives before the previous stimulus was processed.
Player may freeze to sort out confliction.
Freezing when the tennis ball clips the net.
What is Schmidt’s Schema theory?
Parameter?
We store schemas as the brain is unable to store and retrieve every motor programme.
Knowledge from one sport, adapt and transfer it to current sport.
Parameters (considerations like environment, muscles) for every movement will differ.
What is a schema?
A generalised motor programme.
Allowing for adapting and transfer of one skill to another.
What is a recall schema? Schmidt’s theory
What are the 2 elements of it?
Stores info and initiates movement.
Prior to performance.
Initial conditions and response specification.
What are initial conditions - Schmidt
Gathering info. from environment about whether you have been in this situation before.
What are response specifications - Schmidt
Based on initial conditions, you decide what movement to perform.
What is the recognition schema? Schmidt’s theory
What are the 2 elements of it?
Following or during movement.
Controls and evaluates the movement.
Sensory consequences and response outcome.
What are sensory consequences - Schmidt
Gathering info. about the movement using intrinsic feedback or kinaesthesis.
What are response outcomes - Schmidt
Gathering info. concerning the result of the movement. Success or fail?
Using 1 sport, explain the recall and recognition schmea.
Recall:
Initial conditions - football attacking and recognising similar situation to training.
Response specifications - using info. to decide what type of pass and who to perform.
Recognition specifications - made the pass and felt good on my foot, right power and positioning.
Response outcome - successfully received by forward.
How can a performer develop schemas?
- Practice skills until overlearned.
