Significant Concepts in issues or debates in religion and ethics

Question 1

Describe the Kyoto Protocol.

Answer 1

• recognition by global governments of a need to act on a global scale
• aimed to combat global waring by creating an international treaty on the environment with the targets of ‘stabilisation of greenhouse gases’. and reduction of carbon emissions.

Question 2

Give the three aims of the Church of England with regards to the environment.

Answer 2

• be economic in our use of energy resources
• control damage done to flora and fauna
• minimise population in order to reach sustainable harmony.

Question 3

define moral agency and its criteria.

Answer 3

• being able to make moral decisions.
• free will, rational, self-aware, intentional.

Question 4

Give the two normative theories and define them.

Answer 4

teleological theories: focuses on the consequences of an action
deontological theories: our intentions are what matters

Question 5

Define conservation

Answer 5

conservation: prevention of wasteful use of a resource

Question 6

Define the Christian Responses to the environment.

Answer 6

dominion: Humans are’ created in the image of God’ and are given dominion over the animals by God.
Stewardship: God has given humanity responsibility to care and look after the planet

Question 7

Describe ‘Dominion’ as a Christian Response.

Answer 7

• suggests an anthropocentric view of the world.
• The Biblical support for dominion is found in -Genesis 1.
• sees animals as having only instrumental value

Question 8

Give Peter Singer’s criticism of Dominion view

Answer 8

• ’ according to the Dominant Western tradition , the natural world exists for the benefit of human beings. God does not care how we treat it. Human beings are the only morally important members of this world. Nature itself is of no intrinsic value’
• According to Singer , the idea of dominion is the root cause of our environmental issues

Question 9

Describe the Christian beliefs on stewardship

Answer 9

• In genesis 2:15 , we are told that man is put in Eden to protect and preserve it. ‘ The Lord God took man and put him in the garden of Eden to till it and keep it ‘
• Christians who base their beliefs on this passage accept that human beings are morally superior to other forms of life, but they take this to mean that we were given a responsibility from God to look after and care for both the environment and animals.
• humans and nature both have value, but humans have MORAL value, whereas nature’s value lies only in the fact it was created by God.
• think that they should take action to preserve the environment and not do damage to God’s creation.

Question 10

Give the key reasons for the view of Stewardship

Answer 10

Creation spirituality : God can be found in his creation.
- St Francis of Assisi believed God could be seen in all creation so to harm it is a sin.
- humanity is a part of the whole creation rather than separate to it
Consequences of sin: original sin committed by humans has had a negative effect on the relationship between God and humans.
- This has also negatively affected our relationship with creation , and stewardship is essential to resolve this breakdown.
CA: no human action is sufficient to resolve the breakdown. This has been resolved through Jesus’ death on the cross and creation will be restored at the second coming.

Question 11

Describe rapture theory. Include scholar view.

Answer 11

• the belief of some fundamentalist Christians .
• this is the belief that if Jesus will rise again and the world will be destroyed than it is pointless to worry about the environment.
• destruction of the environment is to be welcomed as it is a sign of the coming of the Apocalypse and the Second Coming of Christ.
• Pastor John Hagee from Texas says that the environmental crisis of today is indicative of the rapture where believers will be reborn in heaven and non believers will go to hell.

Question 12

Give the quakers view on the environment.

Answer 12

• believe that they should show consideration for all of God’s creation and one aspect of this could be to stand up to the rights of animals.
• They would try to balance the rights of human beings with kindness towards animals and attempt to bring about the good of both.
• “ to say that we love God and at the same time exercise cruelty toward the least creature is a contradiction in itself” - John Woolman

Question 13

Give 3 quotes from the Bible which support the view of Dominion.

Answer 13

• “ God created man in his own image” Genesis 1:27. link to Moral superiority.
• “ And let them have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens.” Genesis 1:26
• God told Peter to “ Rise , Kill and eat”

Question 14

Give 3 quotes from the Bible which support the view of Stewardship .

Answer 14

“ You shall not defile the land in which you live . In the midst of which I dwell” - link to Christian spirituality
“ The Lord God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to work it and keep it” - Genesis 2:15
“ You shall not take the mother with the young”

Question 15

Give the strengths and weaknesses as to the employment of religious perspectives to the debate on the conservation of the environment.

Answer 15

Strengths:
- the approach of Christianity promotes tolerance and kindness, promoting stewardship.
- recognises the environment as God’s creation this of great importance.
- the approach is holistic in that God created everything and said that it was good
- many religious teachings support the aims of environmental groups
- approach is androcentric
Weaknesses :
- religious teachings are of value but other views need to be considered
- teachings only suggest perspectives and attitudes and do not insist upon action.
- androcentric approach to the environment is not an advantage but only taints any objective perspective.
- religious teachings in regards to animals are not always respectful - humans have sos but animals do not.

Question 16

Give the three secular approaches to environmental ethics

Answer 16

1) libertarian extension - Deep Ecology : environment has intrinsic value
2) conservation ethics- Shallow Ecology- environment has an instrumental valuable.
3) ecological extension or eco-holism( lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis)

Question 17

Summarise the view of Deep Ecology

Answer 17

• Naess argued for the intrinsic value of the environment. All life has an equal right to life. This is ecosophy.
• biocentric view
• Aarne Naess refers to it as “a philosophy of ecological harmony”
• humans have no right to abuse or use nature for their own gains as they are equal to all life forms .
• Naess opposes Stewardship believing that it gives a moral superiority to humans. He calls dominion ‘ arrogant’

Question 18

Give the view of George Sessions on Deep Ecology.

Answer 18

Puts forward a manifesto in favour of it .
- all life has intrinsic value
- human impact on the environment is excessive
- human impact must be reduced
- those who accept the views must commit to peaceful change.

Question 19

Give Naess five views on how humans should act. Give a criticism of this.

Answer 19

1) reduce the earths population
2) stop focusing on economic growth
3) conserve diversity of species
4) live in small , self-reliant communities
5) ‘ touch the earth lightly’

criticism : unrealistic. Humans have just as much right to reproduce as other species. Richard sylvan believe we should respect but not revere the environments

Question 20

Give strengths of the argument in favour of deep ecology

Answer 20

• advocate for protecting all species and the principle of ecosophy which maintains biodiversity. ( link to Ahimsa)
• Joanna Macy - emphasises the interconnectedness of all life forms (paticcasamupadda)
• advocates for a balanced ecosphere
  CA: should not be to the extent deep ecology encourages ( misanthropic)

Question 21

Give weaknesses of Deep Ecology

Answer 21

• Earth Summits such as Kyoto have proved not to be effective, raising questions about Sessions’ 8-point manifesto
• idealistic - Jonathan Bates - Deep ecology aims for a form of natural eutopia
• deep ecology is arguably misanthropic and discourage a growing population

Question 22

Summarise the views of Shallow Ecology

Answer 22

• anthropocentric view
• argue that the environment is a means for human flourishing and as it benefits humanity, it must be preserved
• environment has instrumental value alone
• based on conservation ethics: focused on usefulness to humans
• La Bossiere argues that species should be allowed to die out due to natural selection and evolution.
• moral worth is attributed only to humans; animals are used as a means to an end

Question 23

Give the strengths of Shallow Ecology

Answer 23

• preserves the natural world without compromising on economic growth
• more realistic to implement shallow ecology protocols than deep ecology
  CA: Kyoto Protocol adopts SE and has not worked

Question 24

Give weaknesses of shallow ecology.

Answer 24

• allows us to destroy the world for the benefit of humans
• promotes speciesism ( Peter Singer)
  CA: humans have moral superiority in Abrahamic faith and Buddhism
  CA: Kant + Aristotle believe that humans have rationality which makes them different

Question 25

Summarise James Lovelock’s Gaia Hypothesis

Answer 25

-the earth regulates and sustains itself in order to to survive.
- Lovelock sees the environment as connected because it is a whole which responds to exterior changes maintaining its own existence.
- ‘ A complex entity involving the earth’s biosphere, atmosphere (…) the totality constituting feedback’
- the conditions on Earth are managed by Gaia ; the world is not a result of chance but is self engineered.
- ‘ unified holistic living entity ‘
- Lovelock proposes the Daisy theory which assumes stability not change contrary to evolution.
- Gaia possesses the power to change everything; ‘ her unconscious goal is a planet fit for life, if humans stand in the way of this; we shall be eliminated with (…) little pity.’

Question 26

Give Peter Singer’s view on environmental ethics.

Answer 26

• He is a preference utilitarian and so believes animals should receive equal preference. He is sentient being centred.
• Singer is against species as ‘speciesism draws an arbitrary line’
• uses the analogy of an antelope and human caught in a trap. Singer argues that one should free the antelope first as humans can reason but an antelope would suffer more pain as a sentient being.

Question 27

Give the strengths and weaknesses of religious approaches about human responsibility for the environment.

Answer 27

strengths:
- the approach of Christianity promotes tolerance and kindness, promoting stewardship
- recognises the environment as God’s creation and that is it therefore of great value and importance.
- rooted in scripture and so more inclined to care due to faith.
CA: no clear command as to what branch to follow
weaknesses:
- anthropocentric approach taints any chance of an objective perspective
-religious teachings only suggest perspectives and attitudes and do not insist upon action.
- variety of religious approaches so no clarity on what to follow : Assisi declarations was unsuccessful in producing systemic changes
- does not equate to a practical solution

Question 28

Give the strengths and weakness of secular approaches

Answer 28

strengths:
- more universally applicable i.e. shallow ecology
- more practical- shallow ecology has been the basis of many protocols and agreements / Kyoto Protocol
weaknesses:
- variety of approaches - no clarity on what to follow nor a unified solution
- relies people on being self motivated
- gaia hypothesis has no scientific basis as it denies evolution.

Question 29

define these key terms:
- animal welfare
- sustainability
- climate change
- waste management
give examples of this.

Answer 29

animal welfare :
- protecting the rights and well being of animals ( both pets and for slaughter) , against abuse : Animal Welfare Act 2006 / RSPCA
sustainability:
- relevant to use of non renewable energy resources . Laws include Environment Act 1995 which aim to promote human advancement and protect the worlds resources for future generations
climate change:
- a change in global or regional climate patterns. Laws : Earth Summit , Kyoto Agreement
Waste management:
collection , transportation and disposal of garbage and other waste products . Laws : control of Pollution (2001) , environmental Protection Act 1990.

Question 30

Define simple equality.

Answer 30

‘ the state of being equal , especially in status , rights or opportunities’

Question 31

give the four issues most often concerned with the distribution of equality.

Answer 31

1. Civil rights:
   it is agreed that everyone should have basic rights and duties and equal civil liberties in society
2. Opportunities for political participation:
   Everyone should have equal input to political participation, and social institutions should help to cater for the disadvantaged.
3. Social status
   Access to positions should not be limited by economic or social class, or native endowments.
4. Economic rewards

Question 32

Explain how economic rewards propose an issue to simple equality

Answer 32

These have the most justifications for unequal treatment, such as
(a) need or differing natural disadvantages (e,g, disabilities)
(b) existing rights or claims (e.g. private property);
(c) differences in the performance of special services (e.g. desert, efforts, or sacrifices);
(d) efficiency;
(e) compensation for direct and indirect or structural discrimination (e.g. affirmative action/positive discrimination).

Question 33

Give problems with simple equality

Answer 33

1. Deciding how to measure equality is very difficult. There could be different levels of satisfaction dependent on what is given.
2. It is difficult to know over what timespan people should be equal.
3. It seems unjust to reduce the amount that someone has from a given starting position if it gives no advantage to others.
4. Moral objections ( see next flashcard)

Question 34

What are the moral objections against simple equality?

Answer 34

• people have different desires, so you cannot force everyone to have the same.
• limits people’s freedom - infringing upon human rights
• People have distinctive individual qualities that should be regarded and respected. Forcing everyone to have the same insufficiently and unequally regards these.
• prevents people from having the right and duty to take responsibility for their decisions and their consequences.
• Simple equality being associated with results is problematic. It is not only the consequences of an action that should be considered but the intention.
• danger of uniformity instead of pluralism ( diversity). This view is seen in feminist and multiculturalist theory.

Question 35

Describe equality of welfare

Answer 35

• ‘welfare is well being or one’s quality of life’
• welfare is intrinsically good and other goods are instrumental to achieving welfare
• ensures that everyone had the right resources to ensure they have equal welfare e.g a disabled person may require a higher amount of resources.

Question 36

Give the issues with Welfare Equality

Answer 36

1. Objective vs subjective welfare
   - doesn’t account for desires which has little or even negative social value
2. Psychological challenges:
   - different people have different mental challenges which may alter how much pleasure they receive from certain things.
3. Expensive vs inexpensive tastes:
   - some people may need a disproportionate or expensive amount of resources to satisfy their preferences.

Question 37

Describe equality of resources

Answer 37

• ensures that we should all have the same amount of resources and control over how we use them
• this means taste becomes a private concern rather than a matter of justice

Question 38

Give Dworkin’s solution

Answer 38

• features of the self should count as resources. Thus somebody with a disabled body should be seen as having fewer resources.
• equality of resources only gives people sufficient resources to convert to welfare, but leaves this up to them.

Question 39

Describe Luck Egalitarianism

Answer 39

• attempts to reduce inequalities based on morally arbitrary factors such as illnesses/accidents.
• compensation must be given to those who have suffered inequalities in life.

Question 40

Give the three challenges to luck egalitarianism

Answer 40

• do free will and moral responsibility really exist. If these concepts are not real than inequalities based on choice cannot be just.
• should those who make poor choices not be given assistance
• even if we could ensure that people start life on an equal footing. How can we ensure that opportunities later in life are available on an equal basis and are not achieved due to morally arbitrary factors?

Question 41

Define the following terms:
Prejudice
- Stereotypes
discrimination

Answer 41

• preconceived opinion on somebody based on a fixed idea
• assume that all people are from the same group and are the same
• means to treat a group differently because of prejudices

Question 42

Give key dates in the fight towards gender equality regarding the suffragette movement. Give significance of each.

Answer 42

1867: First debate on women’s suffrage in Parliament, led by John Stuart Mill ( man lead debate)
1897: Formation of the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies led by Millicent Fawcett (1847-1929), drawing together peaceful campaign groups. ( CA: peaceful protests unsuccessful)
1903: The Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) is founded in Manchester by Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928).
1905:Suffragette militancy begins
1908-1909: hunger strike begins.
1914: Britain declares war on Germany on 4 August. During the war years, 1914-18, an estimated two million women replace men in traditionally male jobs- catalyst to the recognition of women’s roles.
1918-1929:
- women vote for the 1st time
- equal franchise act is passed , women over 21 can now vote in elections.

Question 43

What did the suffragettes fight for?

Answer 43

• to give women the right to vote
• to give women greater equality in society
• to get the government to take women’s suffrage more seriously

Question 44

How did the suffragettes fight?

Answer 44

• believed in civil disobedience and used aggressive tactics to get people to listen and encourage change.
• conducted a prolonged campaign
• invented the letter bomb
• 1909 - Ms Bouvier et al threw stones at the home office incidents. This mis was the first official violent suffrage incident.
• hunger strikes when imprisoned

Question 45

Asses the success of the suffragette movement. Give its strengths.

Answer 45

• successful completion of their proposals . Women were given the right to vote.
• the right to vote acted as a catalyst for continuous development of women’s rights to this day.
• Millicent Fawcett said, “ the suffragettes have done more during the last 12 months than we have (…) in the same number of years
• it was only after militaristic tactics that politicians took the suffragette movement more seriously

Question 46

Describe equality of opportunity

Answer 46

two types of equality of opportunity:
- Formal equality of opportunity appoints people to positions on the basis of merit, that they are good at the things that determine success in that role etc.
- Substantive equality of opportunity goes further, as it addresses not just procedures for allocating position, but the preparation of candidates that determine their chances of success.
- generally , it is the argument that that people ought to be able to compete on equal terms, or on a “level playing field,”

Question 47

Give criticisms of equality of opportunity

Answer 47

1. Some argue that it is simply not true that all people are equal. They may believe this for a variety of reasons, normally based on what they think gives worth to people.
2. Equality undermines productivity. If the state constantly redistributes income, then people will not bother being productive, as there is no incentive.

Question 48

Assess the strengths of the suffragette movement. Give the weaknesses and their counter arguments

Answer 48

• took a long time for women’s rights to be recognised ( almost a century)
• undermined the campaign through the use of violence.
  CA: ultimately violent tactics brought about the change.
• introduction of WW1 led to a more fundamental change in women’s rights than the suffragette movement itself.
• unnecessary violence was used: bombing and arson (1912-1914). Which killed 5 and injured 24 yet brought about no change
• If MPs gave into their violent methods, it would set a precedent and would encourage others to use violent methods to protest
• From 1911 onwards, many did not agree with the militant strategy and they lost support
• Emmeline Pankhurst was exiled to France

Question 49

Describe Emmeline Pankhurst’s role and contributions to the Suffragette movement.

Answer 49

• Founded the women’s franchise league which secured (1894) for married women the right to vote in local office elections.
• From 1906, she directed WSPU activities from London. She campaigned against the liberal government and their candidates at elections. Their slogan “ deed nor words”
• She was released and rearrested 12 times within a year as a results of the Prisoners Temporary Discharge for health act. The authorities policy of force feeding those who had undergone hunger strikers garnered sympathy for the women

Question 50

Assess the contribution of Emmeline Pankhurst towards gender equality. Give the strengths.

Answer 50

• international reach with her campaign
• founded the WSPU which adapted in the face of opposition
• her impact remains today
  CA: only women’s rights were fought for whereas gender equality is now fought for both sides.
• militant tactics ; hunger strikes garnered public sympathy so more awareness

Question 51

Assess the contribution of Emmeline Pankhurst towards gender equality

Answer 51

• Arson campaign hugely tainted the whole movement under the direction of her daughter ; Cristabel.
• left out those who did not agree with violent tactics.
• usefulness was limited by exile to France.
• Pankhurst was arrested 15 times which set a precedent to break the law for change.

Question 52

Give quotes which support the success of the suffragette movement.

Answer 52

• “better to die than to live in slavery. Em.P”
• “men make the moral code and expect woman to accept it”
• “a defiant deed has greater value than innumerable thousands of words”

Question 53

Give quotes which undermine the success of the Suffragette Movement.

Answer 53

• Planned “rush” on Parliament in October 1908 was unsuccessful. 60,00 people gathered to attempt to invade the House of Commons but they were stopped by the police.
• founded the WSPU only
• motto : deeds not words incites violence

Question 54

give key biblical quotations which illustrate gender equality

Answer 54

• “ there is neither Jew nor Greek(..) male nor female, for you are all one in Christ” - Galatians 3:28. (revolutionary at the time
• Quakers are liberal Christians. They believe that everyone is equal as they have the “light of Christ” within them.
• “ God created mankind in his work image” (1:27)
• Jesus commanded that Christians should “love they neighbour, even thy enemy. Matthew 5:43. ( is against gender discrimination and emphasises love and compassion.

Question 55

Give and Explain thé different interpretations of Ephesians 5:22-33

Answer 55

“ wives and submit yourselves to your own husbands as you do to the Lord”.
- illustrates that men have power over woman and must obey.
- submission doesn’t have to be negative
“ Husbands, love your wives just as Christ loved the church’s and gave himself up for her”
- exercises the importance of loving in a relationship.
- doesn’t advocate for an abusive relationship
- men are given an extreme command heres - sacrificing their life. - unequal
“ the husband is the head of the wife as Christ is head of the Church”
- ‘head’ could mean authority over the wife
- or ‘ source of life’ referring to Genesis 2:21 , where the man is the source of Eves life . Seeming to emphasise relationship rather than power.

Question 56

Give and Explain the Roman Catholic View on Ephesians 5 as seen in the Mulieris Dignitatem

Answer 56

“biblical knowledge is achieved in accordance with the truth (…) not distorted (…) by desire”
- one shouldn’t read their own opinions onto the Bible as that leads to misinterpretation.
- should approach it with a more open mind
“I have brought a man into being with the help of the Lord”
- places value on being a mother
- men’s existence is reliant on that of a women’s.

Question 57

Give and explain the Protestant view of Ephesians 5 .

Answer 57

‘a specific womanbe submissive to aspecific man (…) women and men be submissibe to leaders appointed from among the male membership’
- does not demonstrate equality in its truest sense as women are asked to submit but men are not.
- only men are able to be appointed a leaders of the church
- women are not inferior to men as are asked only to submit to their husband. submission can be interpreted differently.
‘ he would have created her from man’s head (..) if inferior (…) from man’s feet.’ - Augustine
- reads interpretation onto the Bible assuming that there is significance to where Eve was made from.

Question 58

Give the Catholic Church’s view on the ordination of women

Answer 58

• ’ only a baptised man validly receives sacred ordination’ - Catechism of the Catholic Church.
• Pope Francis: ‘ the church has spoken and says no … that door is closed’
• Catholic Church teaches that the requirement is a matter of divine law and thus doctrinal.

Question 59

Give three additional scholarly views on Biblical views on gender equality

Question 60

Give Roman Catholic Views against the ordination of women

Answer 60

1. example recorded in the sacred scripture of Christ choosing his apostles only from among men
2. Constant practice of the Church which has imitated the first point
3. living teaching authority which has consistently held that the exclusion of women from the priesthood is in accordance with God’s plan for his church when first built is on the ‘rock’ of peter ( Matthew 16:18)

Question 61

Assess the strengths of religious approaches to gender equality(12marks) Give the strengths.

Answer 61

strengths :
- Religious models of gender equality may recognise the distinct and valuable contributions of different genders, therefore enabling them to build on inherent strengths and talents.
- Religious approaches may be based on the presentation of key religious figures, such as Jesus, which therefore promote good examples of compassionate and humanitarian treatmentofallgenders.
- less utopian than simple equality
- parts of scripture care for total equality ( see FC 54)

Question 62

Assess the strengths of religious approaches to gender equality(12marks) Give the weaknesses.

Answer 62

weaknesses:
- Religious approaches draw on sacred texts, however some feel these need to be interpreted relevantly in the modern world, in the light of changing cultural differences.
- Religious approaches to gender equality may appear to be anachronistic and therefore fail to take into account ideological changes such as feminism.
- Religious contributions to gender equality may promote a hierarchical understanding
of male and female roles (bishops-Catholic’

Question 63

Give Christian views which demonstrate inequality between genders

Answer 63

• some fundamentalist Christians believe that men are head of the household and that women should submit to their will ( Peter 5)
• ” For Adam was formed first and then Eve”
  CA: Ann Atkins suggests that no matter what order humanity was created in , one could read a sexist interpretation onto it
• Some Catholics believe that although women are equal in value , they have different callings than men and should not lead the church.

Question 64

Give Christian views which demonstrate equality between genders

Answer 64

• Quakers are liberal Christians. They believe in the equality of all, no matter gender , upbringings etc
• Many Protestants believe that equality includes gifts and callings thus they admit women leaders into the church
• humans were created in the image of God