Application of ethical theories

Question 1

Define the Just War theory

Answer 1

• JWT serves as a moral framework to determine the justifiability of military force, originating from the works of philosophers such as St. Augustine and St. Aquinas.
• It delineates three key categories: jus ad bellum, jus in bello, and jus post bellum, addressing moral considerations before, during, and after warfare.

Question 2

Outline the origins of JWT

Answer 2

• Augustine drew on the existing Roman idea of justum bellum and the Old Testament tradition where wars on behalf of Israel and God were clearly commanded by God.
• Ambrose stipulated that war must only be waged by a legitimate governmental authority; it must be intended to restore peace and justice and a last resort.
• Aquinas drew these concepts together and listed right authority , just cause and just intention as the most important aspects.

Question 3

Define and describe the categories of JWT

Answer 3

jus ad bellum: - justice in the decision to wage war
jus in bello: justice in the conduct of war
jus post bellum: justice in the ending of war

Question 4

Outline the guidelines of jus ad bellum

Answer 4

1. Just cause; can include to right a wrong , self defence , defending others
2. Legitimate Authority
3. Right Intention
4. Likelihood of success
5. Proportionality
6. Last Resort

Question 5

Outline the guidelines of jus in bello

Answer 5

• proportionality
• discrimination and non-combatant immunity
• obey all international laws on weapons prohibition
• benevolent quarantine
• no means mala in se
• no reprisals

Question 6

Outline the guidelines of Jus post bellum

Answer 6

1. Proportionality
2. Discrimination
3. Rights Vindication ( restoration of the rights of civilians
4. Punishment
5. Compensation
6. Rehabilitation

Question 7

Outline Old Testament views on JWT.

Answer 7

Judges 5:2-31 : “ so perish all your enemies, O Lord”
- rather than overt command to go to a war it is a response to those who sin.
Joshua 10:40 : ‘ Joshua spared no one, everyone was put to death’
- indiscriminate form of violence
Isaiah 2:4: ‘nation will not take up sword against nation , nor will they train for war anymore’
- uses futuristic tenses thus unaware of when this is applicable. However, some believe that it talks about ‘ the last of days’ referencing Parousia

Question 8

Outline New Testament views on JWT

Answer 8

” For our struggle is not against flesh and blood (…) but against the spiritual forces of evil”
- focuses on overcoming the internal spiritual battle between sinful urges and acts of goodness rather than promoting acts of violence.

Question 9

Outline Christian views which advocate for a peaceful approach to violence

Answer 9

Jesus’ sayings imply a pacifist (non-violent) approach:
- “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called Children of God” Matthew 5:9.
- “Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you”
- Jesus is seen as the new covenant. Due to his crucifixion and as the source of salvation, he emphasises an approach which allows for a close relationship with God.

Question 10

Outline Christian views which permit violence

Answer 10

• Emperor Constantine believed that Jesus had appeared in a vision , where he was promised victory in battle , if he converted to Christianity. Thus violence can be seen as permissible in certain circumstances.
• Augustine says “ Christians make war with tears in their eyes”. Thus war is not encouraged but rather seen as permissible in times of necessity.

Question 11

Give a Situation Ethics’ view on Just War Theory

Question 12

Give a Natural Moralist view on Just War Theory

Question 13

Give a Utilitarianist view on Just War theory

Question 14

Summarise the events of the Iraq War. Include quotes.

Answer 14

• Bush and Blair claimed to have follow the conditions of Just War theory , arguing that it was a ‘ last resort’ and that there was ‘ just cause for the war’ due to a claim that Iraq possessed WMD
• This was despite the fact that there was none to be found , ultimately leading to the death of approx.1 million Iraqis.
• “to disarm Iraq, to free its people and to defend the world from grave danger”

Question 15

Summarise the events of the Hiroshima + Nagasaki bombing.

Question 16

Give JWT views on the use of nuclear warfare

Answer 16

proportionality and principle of discrimination: both the short term and long term effects of using nuclear warfare cannot be justified due to their indiscriminate and unpredictable nature.
- JWT isn’t useful as in likelihood, the immediate use of a nuclear weapon would result in an inevitable escalation to the point of mutually assured destruction.

Question 17

Give additional scholarly views on JWT

Answer 17

Noam Chomsky:
- criticises the selective application of just war principles, pointing out how powerful states tend to invoke them to legitimatise their military intervention while ignoring the principles when it comes to their own actions ( Iraq War).
- suggests that JWT can lead to moral blindness , as it focuses on abstract principles of justice while ignoring the concrete consequence of war on civilians and vulnerable populations.
Jean Elshtain:
- highlighted the moral ambiguity inherent in many conflicts due to the complexities of distinguishing between perpetrators and victims.
Richard Norman:
- explored the moral principles that govern the conduct of warfare within JWT.
- acknowledges the complexity of applying the principles in practice but argues that they provide valuable guidance for distinguishing between justified and unjustified uses of force.

Question 18

Evaluate the success of the Just War Theory. Argue in support.

Answer 18

• With parameters , the wars are fought fairly. Link to Richard Norman.
  CA: no certainty that the opposing side will follow these criteria as parameters are subjective and can be misused. link to Chomsky and moral blindness.
• Primary aim is to bring about peace and avoid innocent civilians.
  CA: we almost invariably cannot avoid innocent civilians as war always has collateral damage.
  R: can the innocent civilians be clearly defined. Link to Elshtain.
• Historical precedent due to its use in WWII.
• war is inevitable due to human nature and so at least JWT offers a constraint.
• aims to avoid retribution.
• it is a universal theory, but flexible , in that it grows and develops with the times.

Question 19

Evaluate the success of the JWT. Argue Against

Answer 19

• focuses on justifying war rather than the prevention of the war entirely. Chomsky would argue that we should advocate for alternative approaches
• Nuclear weapons may mean the theory is redundant and not co-existent with modern times ( as principles of discrimination cannot be applied)
  CA: still a need to consider their use through the moral framework which JWT offer
  CA: Drone tech is advancing to make WMD more accurate
  CA: not used in all wars; civil wars
  R: Nonetheless, surely we should be focusing on the widescale impact of NW
• hard to predict certain criteria : jus ad bellum
• goes against Jesus Teachings
  CA: Emperor Constantine
  R: shortcomings of religious experience
• Walter Wink considers that Augustine’s teachings of the JWT led Christians on the wrong path. Believes that there can never be just reasons to go to war

Question 20

Define pacifism.

Answer 20

• Pacifism is the opposition to war and violence due to the belief that it is immoral to harm others.

Question 21

Give the four types of pacifism and define.

Answer 21

• absolute
• conditional
• selective
• active pacifism.

Question 22

define absolute pacifism and give example of a proponent

Answer 22

• An absolute pacifist believes that it is never right to take part in war, even in self-defence.
• They think that the value of human life is so high that nothing can justify killing a person deliberately.
• hold this view as a basic moral or spiritual principle, without regard to the results of war or violence, however they could logically argue that violence always leads to worse results than non-violence.
• Einstein says “Nothing will end war unless the people themselves refuse to go to war.”
• Martin Luther King advocated for the rights of black people using peacful protests rather than resorting to violence.

Question 23

define conditional pacifism

Answer 23

• Conditional pacifists are against war and violence in principle, but they accept that there may be circumstances when war will be less bad than the alternative (the lesser of two evils).
• usually base their moral code on Utilitarian principles - it’s the bad consequences that make it wrong to resort to war or violence.
• Bonhoeffer is an example.

Question 24

Describe selective pacifsm

Answer 24

• Selective pacifists believe that it is a matter of degree, and only oppose wars involving weapons of mass destruction - nuclear or chemical and biological weapons
• either because of the uniquely devastating consequences of such weapons, or because a war that uses such weapons is not ‘winnable’.

Question 25

Describe active pacifism

Answer 25

• Active pacifism refers to pacifists who are heavily involved in political activity to promote peace, and to argue against particular wars.
• During a war many pacifists will refuse to fight (conscientious objectors), but some will take part in activities and some form of public service that seek to reduce the harm of war.

Question 26

Outline additional scholarly views in support of pacifism

Answer 26

leo tolstoy: bases his views on Christian principles of no-violace and love forall manking. Believed that violece only perpetuated more violence and that true progress could only be achieved through non-violent means. Believed that wars were ultimately futile and passive resitance are more effective means of bringing about peace.
bertrand russel: argued that war and violence were not only morally wrong but also ittational and counterproductive. Saw war as a product of human folly and short-sightedness, fuelled by milatrism. In his works , he condemended war as a crime against humanity.
- MLK: beleived in the power of non-violent opposition and resistance as a means to combat injustice and opression

Question 27

Outline additional scholarly views in contest of pacifism

Answer 27

• Thomas Hobbes: argued that human beings are inherently self-interest and competitive, leading to a perpetual state of conflict in the absence of strong central authority. Believed without the threat of force and punishemnt indidivuals would act in their own self interest thus violence must be enforced.
• Neihbuhr criticised it for its impracticality in the face of the complexisties of human nature and the realities of political conflict. He argued that while morally admirative in pursuit of peace, it often fails to adequately address the inherent innjustices and aggressions present in the world. Force can be used to prevent greater eil or defend against aggression.

Question 28

Evaluate the practicality of absolute pacifism

Answer 28

pros:
- there is no subjectivity , it is always wrong regardless of the situation.
- not relatiising life ; all treated equally.
cons:
- violence is widespread + often available. CA: could lose your life when you retaliate. R: for the right cause it may be a worthy sacrifice.
- it is ideological, not everyone is pacifist so it doesn’t work and is impractical. If violence still exists, then absolute pacifism wouldnt work.

Question 29

Give the quaker’s views on violence

include some of their values

Answer 29

• beleive that everyone carries an ‘ inner light of God’ and that there is ‘that of God in everyone’ . They are pacifists. Their alternatives to violence may include.
• To spread the Gospels - they beleive due to the Fall, peace cannot be achieved in this lifetime but after salvation.
• believe in passive resistance and conflict resolution and negotiations.
• campaigning for human rights and injustices.

Question 30

Give Christian views on pacifism

Answer 30

• Quakers : George fox says that “ the spirit of Christ , which leads us into all truth, will never move us to fight and war against any man.”
• Pope John Paul II - “ do not believe in violence , do not support violence. It is not the Christian way… believei in peace and forgieness and love , for they are in Christ.”
• “Do not kill.” Bible. Differentiate between kill and murder , which is often pre-meditated , some take it to mean that killing in war is acceptable.

Question 31

What are conscientious objectors?

Answer 31

• killing people is against their conscience - 1600 in WW1 and 40,000 in WW2.
• they can support the war effort as emergency workers.
• fair to opt out if they contribbute to the war effort in some way.

Question 32

Who was Bonhoeffer and what did he do?

Answer 32

• A German Chritian who was apporached to be involved in a plot to kill Hitler. He was an absolute pacifist who could not see how violence could be justified.
• ” If they don’t fight , they are saying that evil is permissible and that is a greater sin”.
• ” silence in the face of evil , is itself evil.”
• Bonhoeffer decided that the right thing to do was to stand up for the weak and the persecuted and fight against evvil , even is this meant using violence.

Question 33

Evaluate the practicality and success of pacifism. Argue in support

Answer 33

• point: violence may only cause more violence: reliance on a violent means of solving conflict may prevent a peaceful apporach from being considered. scholar: leo tolstoy: Thus it is better to begin with a pacifst ideology CA: unless everyone does , this approach does not work. scholar: Hobbes - selfishness prevents this.
• impacts of war are evidence that pacifist ideologies should be implemented - Bertrand Russel
• Pacifism has different forms and can be adpated to align to individual values .
• Passive resistance has worked in the past. Historical precedent with MLK and Gandhi. CA: in some instances , although the leaders use peaceful means , violece was used by followers alongside these acts , thus can’t completely credit them for the success of their freedom.
• to argue against pacifism is an implicit endorsement for evil.
• places an absolute value on life. Albert Schewiter “ Ethics is nothing other than reverance for life. Namely that good assisting and enhancing life , and to destroy life is evil.”

Question 34

Evaluate the practicality and success of pacifism. Argue against.

Answer 34

• Absolute pacifism ignores the need for self-defence and times when you need to resit an aggressor. CA: diff types of pacifism allow for this, link to Bonhoeffer’s quote.
• Peter Golderlool beleives that non violece is an inherently privileged position - to argue for it is to ignore the systematic injustice present in society where violence may be the only means of resolving it - it is idealsitc to argue otherwise
• Jeff Mcmahan , it is difficult to maintain, it takes away from the victim who should have the right to judfge whether a violent responses is justified.
• Utilitarianism , may be right to sacrifice.
• Pacifism can never be a national policy would leave itself open to attack and invasion and as states have a moral obligation to protect their citizens, pacifism