Session #11

Question 1

What is Problem solving?

Answer 1

The term problem solving refers to the processes necessary to reach a goal, typically in situations where the solution is not immediately obvious. The solution may not be obvious for many reasons, although this situation tends to occur when you are missing important information and/or it is not clear how to reach the goal

Question 2

What are the 3 components that all problems include?

Answer 2

(1) the initial state, (2) the goal state, and (3) the obstacles.

Question 3

What is the Obstacle component?

Answer 3

The obstacles describe the restrictions that make it difficult to proceed from the initial state to the goal state.

Question 4

How do effective problem solvers operate?

Answer 4

effective problem solvers typically plan their attack. They often break a problem into its component parts and devise a strategy for solving each part. In addition, people use certain strategies that are likely to produce a solution relatively quickly

Question 5

What does Understanding mean in the context of problem-solving research?

Answer 5

In problem-solving research, the term understanding means that you have constructed a well-organized mental representation of the problem based on both the information provided in the problem and your own previous experience.

Question 6

Problem-solving relies on cognitive activities such as ___, ___, and ___.

Answer 6

attention // memory // decision-making

Question 7

What is Problem Representation?

Answer 7

Problem representation refers to the way you translate the elements of the problem into a different format. If you choose an appropriate representation, you are more likely to reach an effective solution to the problem.

Question 8

What are the most effective methods of representing problems?

Answer 8

Some of the most effective methods of representing problems include symbols, matrices, diagrams, and visual images.

Question 9

What are the major challenges presented to problem-solvers when using symbols?

Answer 9

Problem solvers often make mistakes when they try to translate words into symbols. One common error is that they reverse the roles of the two variables.
An additional error may occur when problem solvers try to translate sentences into symbols: They may oversimplify the sentence, so that they misrepresent the information

Question 10

What is a Matrix?

Answer 10

You can solve some problems effectively by using a matrix, which is a grid consisting of rows and columns; it shows all possible combinations of items.

Question 11

A matrix is an excellent way to keep track of items, particularly if the problem is ___ and if the relevant information is ___. The matrix method is especially suitable when the information is ___, rather than changing over time.

Answer 11

complex // categorical // stable

Question 12

What are the benefits of using diagrams?

Answer 12

-Diagrams allow you to represent abstract information in a concrete fashion.

-They let you discard unnecessary details.

-Diagrams can be useful when you want to represent a large amount of information.

-Diagrams represent complicated information in a clear, concrete form. As a result, you have more “mental space” in your working memory for solving other parts of the problem

Question 13

What is the situated cognition approach?

Answer 13

According to the situated cognition approach, we often use helpful information in our immediate environment to create spatial representations. For instance, we make decisions about the up–down dimension more quickly than decisions about the left–right dimension

Question 14

What is the embodied cognition approach?

Answer 14

According to the embodied cognition approach, we often use our own body and our own motor actions, in order to express our abstract thoughts and knowledge. For example, suppose that you are trying to remember a word that is on the tip of your tongue, such as metronome. You are more likely to succeed if you are allowed to use gestures, such as waving your hand back and forth, using the same motion as a metronome.

Question 15

What is the difference between the situated and embodied approach?

Answer 15

situated cognition emphasizes the external situation that surrounds you. In contrast, embodied cognition emphasizes your own body.

Question 16

The situated cognition approach argues that our ability to solve a problem is tied into the specific ___ and ___ in which we learned to solve that problem. These theorists also argue that an abstract intelligence test often fails to reveal how competent a person would be in solving problems in real-life settings

Answer 16

physical // social context

Question 17

The traditional cognitive approach to thinking emphasizes the processes that take place ___.

Answer 17

inside an individual person’s head

Question 18

This ___ cognition perspective is consistent with the idea that psychologists should emphasize ecological validity if they want to accurately understand cognitive processes

Answer 18

situated

Question 19

We are more likely to successfully solve everyday problems with ___ than ___.

Answer 19

heuristics // algorithms

Question 20

What are the 3 most widely used heuristics?

Answer 20

analogy, the means-ends heuristic, and the hill-climbing heuristic

Question 21

What is the analogy approach/heuristic?

Answer 21

When you use the analogy approach in problem solving, you employ a solution to a similar, earlier problem to help you solve a new problem.

Question 22

What are problem isomorphs?

Answer 22

Researchers use the term problem isomorphs to refer to a set of problems that have the same underlying structures and solutions, but different specific details.

Question 23

People who have limited problem-solving skills and limited metacognitive ability are especially likely to have difficulty using ___.

Answer 23

analogies

Question 24

When are people more likely to successfully use the analogy strategy?

Answer 24

They are more likely to use the analogy strategy correctly when they try several structurally similar problems before they tackle the target problem. Furthermore, students solve statistics problems more accurately if they have been trained to sort problems into categories on the basis of structural similarities.

Question 25

What is the means-ends heuristic?

Answer 25

The means-ends heuristic has two important components: (1) First, you divide the problem into a number of subproblems, or smaller problems, and (2) then you try to reduce the difference between the initial state and the goal state for each of the subproblems.

The name means-ends heuristic is appropriate because it requires you to identify the “ends” (or final result) that you want and then figure out the “means” or methods that you will use to reach those ends. When problem solvers use the means-ends heuristic, they must focus their attention on the difference between the initial problem state and the goal state.

Question 26

Which heuristic is one of the most effective and flexible problem-solving strategies?

Answer 26

the means-ends heuristic

Question 27

What is the most straightforward problem-solving strategy?

Answer 27

the hill-climbing heuristic

Question 28

what is the hill-climbing heuristic?

Answer 28

if you are using the hill-climbing heuristic—and you reach a choice point—you consistently choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal.

Question 29

The ___ heuristic can be useful when you do not have enough information about your alternatives, because you can see only the immediate next step

Answer 29

hill-climbing

Question 30

The hill-climbing heuristic encourages ___ goals rather than ___ solutions.

Answer 30

short-term // long-term

Question 31

True for False: The number of years of experience is NOT strongly correlated with excellent performance in a variety of fields.

Answer 31

True

Question 32

True for False: Experts and novices differ substantially in their knowledge base and schemas

Answer 32

True

Question 33

When experts encounter a novel problem in their area of expertise, they are more likely than novices to use the ___ heuristic effectively. That is, they divide a problem into several subproblems, which they solve in a specified order. They are also more likely to approach a problem ___, whereas novices are more likely to have a haphazard approach.

Answer 33

means-ends // systematically

Question 34

Experts and novices differ in the way they use the analogy approach. When solving physics problems, experts are more likely to emphasize the ___ similarity between problems. In contrast, novices are more likely to be distracted by ___ similarities.

Answer 34

structural // surface

Question 35

Experts ___ the amount of time that novices will require to solve a problem in the experts’ area of specialization. In contrast, the novices are ___ in realizing that they will have trouble solving the problem.

Answer 35

underestimate // more accurate

Question 36

What is a Mental Set?

Answer 36

When you have a mental set, you keep trying the same solution you used in previous problems, even though you could solve the problem by using a different, easier method. If you have a mental set, you close your mind prematurely, and you stop thinking about how to solve a problem effectively

Question 37

What is functional fixedness?

Answer 37

Functional fixedness occurs when our top-down processing is overactive. Specifically, functional fixedness means that we tend to assign stable (or “fixed”) functions to an object. As a result, we fail to think about the features of this object that might be useful in helping us solve a problem.

Question 38

What’s the difference between functional fixedness and mental set?

Answer 38

Mental set refers to our problem-solving strategies, whereas functional fixedness refers to the way we think about physical objects.

Question 39

What is a stereotype threat?

Answer 39

If you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype—and you think about your membership in that group—your performance may suffer

Question 40

Top-down processing may prevent you from solving an ___ problem. In contrast, ___ problems—such as straightforward algebra problems—typically do benefit from top-down processing

Answer 40

insight // noninsight

Question 41

What is extrinsic motivation?

Answer 41

The motivation to work on a task—not because you find it enjoyable—but in order to earn a promised reward or to win a competition.

Question 42

What is intrinsic motivation?

Answer 42

The motivation to work on tasks for their own sake, because you find them interesting, exciting, or personally challenging.

Question 43

Research on extrinsic motivation demonstrates that people often produce ___ creative projects if they are working on these projects for external reasons

Answer 43

less

Question 44

When people believe that a particular task is just a means of earning a reward, a good grade, or a positive evaluation, their extrinsic motivation is ___, but their creativity is likely to ___.

Answer 44

high // decrease