Semester Exam (1) Flashcards
1
Q
Phenotype
A
the physical characteristics of a species
2
Q
Genotype
A
combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a given gene
3
Q
Gene Pool
A
all of the genes of all the members of a population
4
Q
Allele
A
different versions of a gene
4
Q
Phenotype frequency
A
number of times a phenotype occurs within a population
5
Q
Genotype frequency
A
number of times a genotype occurs within a population
6
Q
Allele frequency
A
number of times an allele occurs within a population
7
Q
4 main sources of genetic variation
A
mutation, lateral gene transfer, migration, sexual reproduction
8
Q
lateral gene transfer
A
within a generation
9
Q
migration
A
moving from one area to another
10
Q
sexual reproduction
A
gamete formation through miosis
11
Q
concept of hardy-weinberg
A
For a population to maintain equilibrium, certain conditions must be met, and that will stop evolution. The population has gene/allele frequencies that do not change. The population cannot evolve and there is no change happening. Although, this is impossible. We have proved gene frequencies must change from generation to generation.
12
Q
5 criteria to meet hardy-weinberg
A
no new mutations, completely random mating, no migration, very large population, no natural selection
13
Q
concept of genetic equillibrium
A
gene frequencies do not change, and evolution does not occur
14
Q
hardy-weinberg equations
A
p+q=1, used for dominant and recessive allele frequencies, p^2+2pq+q^2, used for total dominant, recessive, heterozygous
15
Q
genetic drift
A
change in gene frequency due to a random event, like natural disasters, smaller gene pools are more affected, then they are more likely to go extinct because genetic drift leads to less variation and they are less likely to adapt to environmental changes. Two types of genetic drift, bottleneck, and founder.
16
Q
why is genetic drift more susceptible to small populations
A
smaller frequencies take less to be able to change the frequencies
17
Q
why does genetic drift lead to extinction
A
genetic drift leads to less variation, and they are not as likely to adapt to environmental changes.
18
Q
bottleneck effect
A
very large population is reduced to a small population by a natural disaster, loss of alleles leads to reduced gene pool
19
Q
founder effect
A
a few individuals from the original large population break away to form a new population, gene pool of following generations is based on the founding population
20
Q
gene flow
A
Movement of genes from one population to another population. 2 types immigration and emigration. Gene pools become more and more similar and could become one population.
21
Q
immigration
A
movement into a population
22
Q
emigration
A
movement out of a population
23
Q
heterozygous advantage (sickle cell)
A
Mutation, blood cell clumps, collapses and no oxygen is available. aa is fatal, AA is malaria and slow intermediate HIV, and Aa is neither.
24
stabilizing selection
the sweet spot is right in the middle, those who have the "middle" trait are more likely to survive
25
disruptive selection
the sweet spot is the extreme lef of right. Those who have the "left or right" trait are more likely to survive.
26
directional selection
the sweet spot is either one side or the other. Those who have either the "left or the right" are more likely to survive.
27
definition of a species
groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural population which produce fertile offspring
28
flaws to the definition of a species
those who produce asexually do not interbreed, so they do not fit the definition
29
speciation
how new species form
30
process of allopatric
speciation due to a geographic barrier
31
temporal isolation
reproduction at different times, so then they can not interbreed
32
behavioral isolation
different behaviors and ritual like courtship rituals such as their mating songs
33
speciation and the galapagos finches
geographic isolation, founder effect
34
convergent evolution
similar environmental pressures, two species become more closely similar, but never one species
35
divergent evolution
different environmental pressures, one species breaks off into two different species
36
adaptive radiation
different environmental pressures, one species breaks off into multiple different species
37
coevolution
change in response to each other, birds and flowers, bacteria and antibiotics
38
modern synthesis
incorporates genetics and population biology into natural selection, thomas hunt morgan, theodosius dobzhansky worked together, mutations creat variation, most have no effect
39
way in which modern synthesis is different from darwin
recognizes importance of mutations to variation, incorporates other methods of evolution, speciation occurs due to an accumulation of mutations and genetic change
40
3 key elements that must occur for a new species to form
seperated geographically, reproductive isolation, populations get new niches
41
definition of evolution
change in gene frequencies in a population from generation to generation
42
mechanisms of evolution
natural selection, gene flow, genetic drift
43
what does natural selection act on
phenotype which is coded by genotypes
44
what does a greater genetic variation in a population mean
wide range of phenotypes
45
do individuals evolve
no, populations do
46
what did the hardy-weinburg equilibrium prove
populations evolve because all five conditions cannot happen simultaneously. That proves that gene frequencies change from generation to generation
47
how to solve hardy-weinburg problems
solve for homozygous recessive first
48
can a population get rid of the recessive allele in the gene pool
it is very unlikely because even if the population of them get very low, there will still be Rr
49
hardy weinberg equilibrium must occur in populations where
an allele remains fixed, natural selection is not operating
50
parts of an HIV cell and what they do
attacks white blood cells, weakens a person's immune system and makes them more susceptible to infections. HIV stands for Human Immunodefiency Virus CCR5 coreceptor, CXCR4 coreceptor, CD4 receptor
51
Taxonomy
branch of biology that names and groups organisms, the current term is systematics/cladistics
52
Morphology
physical characteristics
53
phylogeny
evolutionary history
54
history of taxonomy
In the 16th and 17th centuries, many new organisms were discovered. This led to many problems. Common names were used. Those common names changed from location to location, they did not accurately describe the organism, and different species shared the same common names. They began assigning Latin and Greek names.
55
work of Aristotle
Classified living organisms as either plant or animal (blood or no blood). Grouped those based on land, air, or water dwellers.
56
why Aristotle’s system became inaccurate
some organisms lived/used multiple of the land, water, and air options, like frogs
57
work of Carolus Linnaeus
In the 1730s Carolus Linnaeus created a universal system of naming that is still used today. It grouped organisms into hierarchical categories. It went from broad to specific. The system was based on morphology.
58
work of Carl Woese
Carl Woese used DNA sequencing when he found that there were two very distinct groups of bacteria. So, he proposed that a new domain should be added, Archaea.
59
when and why did the 5 kingdom system come about
In the 1950s and 60s, they realized the system was failing and in the 1970s the new system was widely accepted. It was changed because most biologists came to the realization that this system failed to accommodate the fungi, protists, and bacteria
60
What are the 5 kingdoms
Animalia, Plantae, Bacteria, Fungi,, Protista
61
Linnaeus’ hierarchy system
7 taxa; kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species; two kingdom; plantae, animalia, broad to specific, morphology
62
binomial nomenclature
Two part name for each species, universally used, genus name comes first, then species. Genus capitalized, species lowercase. Written underlines, typed italicized
63
when and why did the domain system come about
In the late 1970s because there were two distinct groups among the prokaryotes, according to genetic makeup. One of the groups produced methane.
64
phylogenetic tree
shows evolutionary relationships amongst a group of organisms, represents a hypothesis, shows speciation,
65
evidence used to construct a phylogenetic tree
the fossil record, morphology: comparison of homologous structure, the greater number of similarities close related. embryological development, and shared features.
66
difference between taxonomy and systematics
taxonomy uses morphology, has a two-kingdom system, and has no domain. Systematics uses phylogeny, a 5-kingdom system, and has domain.
67
cladistics
based on two principles, clade and derived characters
68
clade
a group that indicates the common ancestor and all of its descendants, living or non-living
69
derived characters
a trait that arises within a group of organisms and remains in all descendants, can be lost
70
node
spot where species break off
71
Archaea
a domain of archaea that can live in extreme environments, similar to bacteria in some ways
72
habitats of archaea
extreme environments like hot springs, glaciers, bottom of the sea, acidic water
73
how were archaea discovered
through Carl Woese’s research
74
why was rna used by woese
ribosomal rna contains most of the chemical composition and doesn’t change much over time
75
tree of life general shape
bacteria on one branch, archaea branching off with eukarya on the other side
76
protist habitats
most habitats are aquatic, freshwater and salt water
77
heterotrophic and autotrophic
heterotropic is obtaining food for metabolism, autotrophic is producing own energy through photosynthesis (chloroplasts)
78
protist reproduction
a-sexual, binary fission grows and splits. Sexual, alternation of generations (water molds) alternate between sexual and asexual. Conjugation, (not reproduction) exchange in genetic information to increase genetic variation
79
contractile vacuoules
Contractile vacuoles is a space within an organism that contracts to release fluid from the organism. Usually water is released. This helps with water balance inside of the cell. This allows the organism to survive under hypotonic stress. Hypotonic stress occurs in a hypotonic environment which is where the solute concentration outside the cell is less than inside the cell.
80
ameoba pseudopod
Psuedopods are used for locomotion and digestion. Cytoplasmic flow creates psuedopods, the psuedopod becomes ectoplasm, an exterior gel, and the endoplasm, or interior fluid is pulled toward the psuedopod. Psuedopod means false foot.
81
phagocytosis
Phagocytosis happens during movement when the amoeba comes in contact with food. The psuedopods move around the food to surround and trap it. An opening in the cell membrane allows the food into the cell and it can be digested.
82
cilia
A paramecium moves by the cilia located on the cell membrane. Cilia are microscopic, chort hair-like structures. There are lots of them found on the paramecium. These cilia move in unison to help propel the organism through the fluid. A common analogy is oars on a boat.
83
volvox colonial organism
The volvox is a parent colony housing daughter colonies. There can be 500-60000 cells within each colony inside of the volvox. The volvox is a green algae and each cell within the volvox contains two flagella. It is considered a colonial organism because of the daughter colonies within it.
84
volvox locomotion
volvox move by the two flagella located on every somatic cell within the organism. All the flagella move together to move the volvox toward the light.
85
euglena photosynthetic
Euglena can perform photosynthesis because they have chloroplasts in the cell. This means they are autotrophs because they can use photosynthesis and energy from light as a food source. When euglena does not have access to sunlight they are heterotrophs.
86
how do euglena move
flagella
87
Trypanosoma host
humans
88
Trypanosoma vectors
tsetse fly and “kissing bug”
89
Trypanosoma diseases it causes
African sleeping disease and Chagas disease
90
plasmodium host
humans
91
plasmodium vector
anopheles mosquito, females only
92
plasmodium spores
no means of locomotion, travels through spores- infected form covered by protective coat
93
domain for protists
eukarya
94
amoeba clade
amoebozoa
95
paramecium clade
chromalveolates
96
euglena clade
excavates
97
diatoms clade
chromalveolates
98
Trypanosoma clade
excavates
99
plasmodium clade
chromalveolates
100
reason classification is going through revolutionary changes within protists
organisms within a kingdom should be more similar than members of other kingdoms, not true for protists
101
what is a vector
a carrier of a disease
102
protists of african sleeping disease
trypanosoma
103
protist of chagas
trypanasomi cruzi
104
protist of malaria
plasmodium falciparum
105
general life cycle of plasmodium
infected mosquito, bites someone, saliva goes into the blood stream (sporozoite), becomes merozoite in the liver, enters bloodstream (symptoms), merozoites can become gametocytes, gametes go into a mosquito, goes into the gut, gamete production.
106
sporozoite
infected form
107
gametocyte
reproductive stage
108
merozoite
form that infects the red blood cells of the host
109
2 main groups of parasitic protists
saromastisophora (excavates) move by flagella
apicomplexa (chromalveolates) spores
110
African sleeping disease stages
Trypanosoma multiplies in blood and lymph nodes (treatable) then Trypanosoma crosses the blood-brain barrier (lethal)
111
chagas stages
first stage, acute stage) can last up to two months, circulates in blood. second stage (chronic phase) hides in heart and digestive muscles (cardiac issues)
112
is amino acid or dna sequence more accurate for cladograms
dna sequences because they have more information that is relevant and show mutations
113
goal of phylogenetic systematics
to group species into larger categories that reflect lines of evolutionary descent rather than similarities and differences
114
in what ways was the early naming of organisms inadequate
common names changes from location to location, did not accurately describe the organism, different species may have the same common name, latin and greek names were too long and too descriptive
115
division
term used instead of phylum in the plant kingdom
116
prokaryotes
a single-celled organism without a nucleus
117
plasmids
small loops of DNA that are separate from bacterial DNA that contain R-factors
118
R-factors
resistance genes that allow for antibiotic resistance
119
flagella
a tiny tail-like structure that provides movement
120
pilli
allow for attachment to surfaces
121
binary fission
how bacteria reproduce, duplicate, and split into two, asexual
122
mutation (gaining antibiotics)
plasmids have mutations that lead to resistance and are then passed on through reproduction
123
conjunction
sharing of plasmid with an R-factor between bacteria, they connect with a pilus
124
transformation
bacteria acquiring “naked” DNA from the environment
125
transduction
bacteria acquiring DNA from a virus
126
vertical gene transfer
generation to generation (mutation)
127
lateral gene transfer
within the same generation (conjunction, transduction, transformation)
128
James Hutton
“Father of Modern Geology”, the earth is continually changing by gradualism, the earth is much older than what the church said
129
Georges Cuvier
developed paleontology, comparative anatomy, he believed in catastrophism, he was opposed to evolution
130
catastrophism
violent catastrophes led to most animals dying and forming fossils
131
Carolus Linnaeus
“Father of taxonomy”, came up with the system to name and classify organisms, grouped by physical similarities, opposed to evolution
132
Charles Lyell
Geology, processes are gradual, uniformitarianism, earth is older than what the church says
133
Lamarck
Organisms are driven towards perfection, use and disuse, acquired characteristics, the first proposal for evolution
134
use and disuse
body structures that are used more frequently become larger and those not used become smaller
135
acquired characteristics
traits acquired during a lifetime would be passed on to the next generation
136
was Lamarck’s theory proven wrong?
yes, both use and disuse, and acquired characteristics are false
137
why was Lamarck’s theory important
It was the first proposal for a mechanism of evolution
138
4 steps of natural selection
genetic variation in a population, environmental change leaving more organisms than can survive, survival of the fittest, favorable trait survives, reproduction, the trait is passed on spreading it through the species
139
how is natural selection different from Lamarck’s theory
they adapt because of the environment, not because they use a certain structure more than another
140
gradualism
Evolution is a slow continuous process overtime
141
descent with modification
all species have descended from one common ancestor
142
what did Darwin not understand when developing his theory
genetics
143
voyage on the beagle
the goal of the trio was to map the coastline of South America, he went to the mainland and explored species
144
Lyell’s Principles of Geology
expanded on James Hutton’s view on the Earth being older than what the church said
145
uniformitarianism
the same geological processes that are forming the earth today are the same as in the past
146
What did Darwin’s collection of finches show
Originally it was thought that the birds were different species, but then it was hypothesized that they diverged to fit their island and descended from one common ancestor
147
Thomas Malthus essay
says that the human population will grow faster than the resources available which will lead to war, famine, and disease. Lead Darwin to conclude that a struggle occurs for all populations
148
Role of mutation in natural selection
it creates the genetic variation that allows the organisms to adapt
149
Punctuated Equilibrium
short rapid periods of evolution followed by long periods of no change
150
Biogeography
the study of where organisms live now and in the past, shows similarities despite differences in where they live
151
How are fossils formed
organisms become buried in sediment, calcium in bone mineralizes (hardens), surrounding sediment hardens to form rock
152
why are the fossil records incomplete
most organisms decomposed or were eaten
153
Steno’s Law of Superposition
the lowest stratum in the rock is the oldest and the top layers are the most recent
154
Transitional fossils
forms a series that traces the evolution of modern species from an ancestor (intermediate forms of the species)
155
homologous structures
structures that are different in function and appearance but have similar structures
156
how can homologous structures show common ancestry
shows organisms have a recent common ancestor and evolved different functions due to different environmental pressures
157
Analogous structures
structures that have a similar appearance and function, but different structures
158
vestigial organs/parts
a structure that no longer has a purpose, but were thought to have one at one point
159
how can vestigial parts show common ancestry
they can connect species to one another because there could be remnants of a body part that they could of had at one point, that another organism has or also had
160
what do similar sequences of amino acids and DNA for the same gene show
Shows common ancestry
161
Homologous proteins
they share extensive structural and chemical similarities
162
antifreeze gene in icefish
a gene was duplicated creating a new protein that prevents crystallization of the blood
163
disappearance of hemoglobin in icefish
a mutation within the DNA sequence occurred, knocking out the ability for the hemoglobin to do its job
164
multicellular vs. unicellular
multicellular is composed of multiple cells and unicellular is composed of one cell
165
role of organelles and molecules within cells
am organelle is a structure within a cell that performs a specific function, molecules are within cells and organelles, and they provide energy use (ATP), structure (proteins), and other functions (DNA)
166
example of blood glucose levels in regard to homeostasis
You eat sugars and the levels go up, then your pancreas releases insulin and your liver and body cells store glucose causing the levels to go down
167
example of body temperature in regard to homeostasis
Body temperature= 37 degrees celsius
The ability to keep a stable internal temperature despite external changes.
Walking outside and you your temperature rises so you sweat to keep you internal temperature down
168
cellular respiration
transforming the food consumed into energy for cells (food –> ATP)
169
photosynthesis
the suns energy converted into sugars (glucose)
170
growth of a living organism vs. a non-living structure
growth of a living organism results from the division and enlargement of cells (cell division)
Growth of a non-living structure comes from accumulation, like an icicle accumulating water
171
role of turning genes on and off
RNA polymerase binds to the promoter turning on the gene and when it is not bonded it turns it off
172
the basic role of stem cells
to provide new cells for the body to be specialized
173
sexual vs. asexual reproduction
sexual reproduction is the combination of genetic material from 2 organisms of the same species
asexual reproduction creates a clone and genetic material is passed on exactly the same
174
Function of DNA
stores genetic information within cells
175
Function of RNA
It carries the DNA message out of the nucleus
176
Where is DNA located
the cell nucleus
177
where is RNA located
the nucleus and cytoplasm
178
5 differences between DNA and RNA
DNA has Thymine and RNA has Uracil
DNA is 2 strands and RNA is 1
DNA is made up of deoxyribose sugar and RNA is made up of ribose sugar
DNA stores genetic information and RNA carries DNA’s message
DNA is located in the cell of the nucleus and RNA is located in the nucleus and cytoplasm
179
3 components of nucleotides
nitrogenous base, phosphate, and sugar
180
importance of hydrogen bonds
hydrogen bonds keep the base pairs together but are weak enough to split when the DNA needs to be used
181
importance of covalent bonds
they hold together the sugar and phosphate and are strong enough so they can not break apart
182
purines
Adenine and Guanine, they are larger and have a 2 ring structure
183
pyrimidines
Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil, they are smaller and have a 1 ring structure
184
Complementary base pairing
When the sequence of each strand determines the sequence of the other.
185
which bases go together
in DNA adenine and thymine and guanine and cytosine pair together. It is the same in RNA except its uracil instead of thymine
186
difference between r and s strains in Griffiths experiment
r strands are rough strains that do not kill the mice, s strains are smooth strains that are deadly to mice
187
Why was the result for Heat killed S mixed with living R so surprising
because alone each kept the mice alive, but together it killed the mouse
188
What was Griffiths conclusion
there is a transforming principle that is transferred when they are combined which causes the mice to die.
189
Role of DNase, RNase, and Protease
They are enzymes that disable RNA, DNA, and proteins, when mixed with the mixture of the heat-killed s strain and live r strain
190
What was the basic process of Avery’s experiment
He injected the mice with a mixture of the 2 strains and added different enzymes to see what the transforming element was.
191
What was Avery’s conclusion
DNA is the transforming principle
192
Number of base pairs in human cells
3 billion
193
Number of chromosomes in human cells
46
194
Definition of a gene
A segment of DNA that under goes transcription and translation to form a protein (traits)
195
The approximate number of genes in humans
20,000-25,000
196
semi-conservative replication
When DNA replicates, it saves half of the parental strand and uses it as a template for new strands
197
how was semi-conservative replication shown in the Meselson and Stahl experiment
They used N^15 and N^14 to see how it replicates. They spun it in a tube to see the combination of the two. The results showed that after one generation there was an even mixture of both elements. The second generation showed that there was 50% N^14 and 50% a mixture of both. semi-conservative is the only replication process that fits this model.
198
Differences between mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
mRNA is the messenger RNA that leaves the nucleus and attaches to the ribosome, tRNA is the transfer RNA that transfers the amino acids, and rRNA is the ribosomal RNA that makes up the ribosome
199
role of transcription and translation in central dogma
to turn DNA into RNA into Proteins that code for traits
200
what happens in transcription
RNA binds to DNA at the promoter, then RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA and connects complementary bases forming mRNA. mRNA then leaves the nucleus and connects to the ribosome.
201
where does transcription occur
the nucleus
202
What happens in translation
the anticodon on tRNA and start codon on mRNA bond together, then the ribosome reads the next codon and tRNA connects to it. The amino acids bond together and the tRNA leaves, this process repeats until the ribosome reads the stop codon, meaning that the strand of amino acids is done.
203
where does translation occur
the ribosome
204
Description of a polypeptide in relation to a protein
Its the chain of amino acids that make up proteins
205
What strand of DNA is used with a genetic table
mRNA
206
DNA replication process
The helicase splits the strand and unwinds it, the polymerase creates complementary pairs for each strand. In the lagging strand, the pairs are in fragments, called Okazaki fragments, DNA ligate puts the fragments together
207
What is an Okazaki fragment
a fragment of complementary pairs adding to the lagging strand during DNA replication
208
Leading strand
one strand of DNA that starts with phosphate
209
Lagging strand
one strand of DNA that starts with sugar
210
autotroph
organisms that produce their own energy through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
211
heterotroph
obtains food for metabolism
212
steps to the scientific method
observation, question, hypothesis, prediction, test
213
hypothesis
a statement that tentatively answers the question, must be testable, must be an if (independent variable, general and not specific)-then (prediction conclussion or dependent variable) statement
214
theory's
eventually if the hypothesis/es are accepted multiple times can be moved to a theory, which is a group of related hypotheses which have withstood numerous experimental testing over long periods of time (100s of years)
215
control group
used for a basis of comparison (negative control- sets the baseline and shows what would occur if the independent variable has no effect. positive control- shows what could occur/ “optimal” outcome)
216
experimental group
the group(s) that are manipulated or changed in the experiment
217
8 characteristics of life
made up of cells
response to stimuli
homeostasis
metabolism
growth and development
reproduction
evolve (populations)
universal genetic code
218
codons and anticodons
codons signal to start adding amino acids to a protein chain and anticodons stop the chain
219
how to use a genetic table
you start with mRNA and split up the codons into the 3 and you use the chart to match the letter to the type of amino acid
220
Alfred Russel Wallace
Species are similar in appearance despite differences in where they live (closely related but different ex. Galapagos finches, sent an essay to darwin which had the same theory (1859)
221
Darwins book
Origin of Species publish 1859
222
DNA / amino acid analysis and common ancestry
those with a common evolutionary origin in genes and proteins have similar sequences of amino acids and DNA, are closely related, and have a more recent common ancestor
different sequences of amino acids and DNA, less related and diverged from a common ancestor much longer ago
223
What is an advantage of building a cladogram or phylogenetic trees using DNA comparisons rather than anatomical features
DNA is a more specific and reliable source to compare rather than anatomical features. it allows for more detailed groupings than just using anatomical features
224
Cell specialization and differentiation
The process of unspecialized cells becoming specialized by genes turning on and off. Specialization is when a stem cell becomes a specialized cell such as a brain cell
