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MCAT Psychology/Sociology > Self-identity, group identity, and social structure > Flashcards

Self-identity, group identity, and social structure Flashcards

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1
Q

Self concept/self identity

A

the sum of an individual’s knowledge and understanding to their self
includes physical, psychological, and social attributes, which can be influenced by the individual’s attitudes

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2
Q

self consciousness

A

awareness of one’s self

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3
Q

self schemas

A

beliefs that a person has about their self

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4
Q

personal identity

A

consists of one’s own sense of personal attributes

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5
Q

social identity

A

consists of social definitions of who you are; can include race, religion, gender, occupation, etc…

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6
Q

the self

A

a construction of social and personal beliefs

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7
Q

self reference effect

A

tendency to better remember info relevant to ourselves; old info consistent with one’s self concept is easier to remember

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8
Q

Carl Rogers

A

founder of humanistic psychology
personality is composed of the ideal self and the real self
when the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is a positive self concept
ideal self is usually an impossible standard to meet, and when the real self falls short of the ideal self the result is incongruity

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9
Q

ideal self

A

constructed out of your life experiences, societal expectations, and the things you admire about role models; person you ought to be

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10
Q

real self

A

person you actually are

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11
Q

incongruity

A

when real self falls short of ideal self

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12
Q

self efficacy

A

belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness

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13
Q

locus of control

A

can be internal or external; what we attribute our outcomes to

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14
Q

internal locus of control

A

believe you’re able to influence outcomes through your own efforts and actions
ex) assume you’re intelligent b/c you aced a test

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15
Q

external locus of control

A

believe your outcomes are controlled by outside forces

ex) assume a test was hard, which is why you did poorly

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16
Q

learned helplessness

A

when people are exposed to situations in which they have no control, they may learn not to act because they believe it will not affect the outcome anyway

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17
Q

self esteem

A

one’s overall evaluation of one’s self worth

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18
Q

Charles Cooley

A

proposed the looking glass self for influence of individuals on social factors and identity formation

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19
Q

looking glass self

A

the idea that a person’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others.
people shape their self concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them

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20
Q

George Herbert Mead

A

developed the idea of social behaviorism

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21
Q

social behaviorism

A

the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others

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22
Q

symbolic interactionism

A

the view of social behavior that emphasizes linguistic or gestural communication and its subjective understanding, especially the role of language in the formation of the child as a social being.

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23
Q

generalized other

A

the common behavioral expectations of general society

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24
Q

socialization

A

the process through which people learn to be proficient and functional members of society; lifelong, sociological process where people learn the attitudes, values, and beliefs that are reinforced by a particular culture

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25
Q

feral children

A

children who weren’t raised with human contact or care

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26
Q

norms

A

unspoken rules and expectations for the behavior of members in a society

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27
Q

sanctions

A

rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms

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28
Q

formal norms

A

generally written; ex) laws

precisely defined, publicly presented, and often accompanied by strict penalties for those who violate them

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29
Q

informal norms

A

generally understood but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments
ex) greeting someone new with a handshake

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30
Q

Mores

A

are norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly reinforced
ex) animal abuse carries harsh punishment

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31
Q

Folkways

A

norms that are less important but shape everyday behavior
ex) dress styles
some formal norms can be folkways (ex. walking on a cross walk vs jay walking when cross walk law not enforced)

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32
Q

agents of socialization

A 
family
school
peers
workplace
religion/government
mass media/technology
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33
Q

assimilation

A

the process in which an individual forsakes aspects of their own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture

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34
Q

amalgamation

A

occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

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35
Q

multiculturalism/pluralism

A

a perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions.
promotes idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot

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36
Q

subculture

A

a segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of a larger society
ex) hippies opposing war in the 60’s and 70’s

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37
Q

Attribution theory

A

given the circumstance, people can attribute behavior to internal causes or external causes

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38
Q

dispositional attribution

A

attribute behavior to internal causes

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39
Q

situational attribution

A

attribute behavior to external causes

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40
Q

3 factors that influence whether behavior is dispositional or situational

A
  1. consistency (dispositional more likely; ex. is anger consistent with how a friend typically acts?)
  2. distinctiveness (situational more likely; ex. is friend angry at everyone or just at you?)
  3. consensus( situational more likely; ex. is your friend the only one angry or is everyone angry?)
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41
Q

fundamental attribution error

A

attribute negative outcomes of others to their internal factors (dispositional)

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42
Q

actor-observer bias

A

one to attribute their own negative outcomes to external factors (situational)

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43
Q

self-serving bias

A

one attributes their own positive outcome to internal factors (dispositional)

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44
Q

optimism bias

A

bad things happen to other people and not to us

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45
Q

just world phenomenon

A

world is fair and people get what they deserve;
when bad things happen to people, it’s their own fault
when good things happen, it’s b/c we deserved it

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46
Q

halo effect

A

believe people have inherently good or bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics
overall impression influenced by how we feel about a person’s character

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47
Q

physical attractiveness stereotype

A

type of halo effect where people tend to rate attractive people more favorably for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive

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48
Q

social perception

A

the understanding of others in our social world; the initial info we process about other people in order to try to understand their mindsets and intentions

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49
Q

social cognition

A

ability of the brain to store and process info regarding social perception

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50
Q

false consensus

A

occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do

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51
Q

projection bias

A

happens when we assume others have the same beliefs as we do

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52
Q

stereotypes

A

over-simplified ideas about groups of people based on characteristics; can be positive or negative

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53
Q

prejudice

A

refers to the thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience; a pre-judgement
ex. black sounding names

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54
Q

discrimination

A

involves acting a certain way toward a group

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55
Q

affirmitive action

A

policies that take factors like sex or race into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or jobs; means to limit discrimination

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56
Q

racism

A

prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race or hold that one race is inferior to another

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57
Q

institutional discrimination

A

refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processess, or institutional objectives.
ex. “don’t ask don’t tell” (about gays) in military

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58
Q

scapegoats

A

unfortunate people at whom displaced aggression is directed

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59
Q

illusory correlation

A

created between a group of people and a characteristic based on unique cases
ex. Bolt is a great athlete; all blacks are great athletes

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60
Q

self fulfilling prophecy

A

when stereotypes lead to behaviors that affirm the original stereotypes
ex. when guy believes sorority girls are snobs, he avoids talking to them, and b/c they never converse his original belief about the girls is affirmed

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61
Q

stereotype threat

A

self fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

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62
Q

ethnocentrism

A

a tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one’s own culture

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63
Q

cultural relativism

A

judging another culture based on its own standards

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64
Q

group

A

a collection of any number of people who regularly interact and identify with each other, sharing similar norms, values, and expectations
ex. neurosurgeons in a hospital

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65
Q

aggregate

A

people who exist in the same space but don’t interact or share a common sense of identity
ex. people in a coffee shop

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66
Q

category

A

people who share similar characteristics but aren’t otherwise tied together
ex. all people studying for the MCAT

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67
Q

primary groups

A

usually small and include those with whom the individual engages with in person, in long-term, emotional ways.

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68
Q

secondary group

A

a larger and more impersonal group; may interact with for specific reasons for shorter periods of time

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69
Q

expressive functions

A

primary groups serve as this

meeting emotional needs

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70
Q

instrumental functions

A

secondary groups serve as this

meeting pragmatic needs

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71
Q

in group

A

a group that a person belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who she is

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72
Q

out group

A

a group that a person doesn’t belong to

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73
Q

reference group

A

a standard measure that people compare themselves to

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74
Q

mere presence

A

people are simply in each other’s presence, either completing similar activities or apparently minding their own business
ex. grocery shopping

75
Q

social facilitation effect

A

when people tend to perform better in the presence of others
works with simple or practiced tasks

76
Q

deindividuation

A

when people act in startling ways in situations of high arousal and very low sense of responsibility
is a lack of self awareness and is the result of a disconnection of behavior from attitudes
people may lose their sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mod mentality

77
Q

Kitty Genovese

A

bystander effect stabbing case

78
Q

bystander effect

A

a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders
assume someone else will take on the responsibility

79
Q

social loafing

A

when people are working together toward common goals, there’s a tendency for them to exert less effort if they’re being evaluated as a group rather than individually.

80
Q

group polarization

A

when groups intensify preexisting views of their members; the average view of a member of the group is accentuated.
entire group tends toward more extreme versions of the average views they initially shared

81
Q

informational influence

A

in group discussion, the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint
just thinking about an opinion might strengthen your support of it

82
Q

normative influence

A

based on social desirability; wanting to be accepted or admired by others so you may take a stronger stance than you initially would have in order to better relate with and internalize the group’s belief system

83
Q

social comparison

A

evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of others

84
Q

groupthink

A

when everyone is in a state of agreement
group is overly optimistic of its capabilities and has unquestioned belief in its stances
group becomes increasingly extreme by justifying its own decisions while demonizing those of opponents
some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group
there’s pressure to conform

85
Q

mindguarding

A

when a group prevents dissenting opinions from permeating it by filtering out info and facts that go against the beliefs of the group.

86
Q

deviance

A

a violation of society’s standards of conduct or expectations

87
Q

stigma

A

when society devalues deviants by assigning demeaning labels

88
Q

Solomon Asch

A

tested the effects of group pressure on individual’s behavior
designed a series of tests where individuals were supposed to pick out similar lines

89
Q

conformity

A

the phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based on the behavior or thinking of others

90
Q

Stanley Milgram

A

conducted a study involving fake shocks

subject was the “teacher” who gave shocks to a confederate who was pretending to be a “student”

91
Q

3 ways behavior may be motivated by social influence

A
  1. compliance (desire to seek reward or to avoid punishment)
  2. identification (desire to be like another person or group)
  3. internalization (motivated by beliefs and values that have been integrated into one’s own value system ex. an internalized value not to harm people may contribute to objecting to administering shocks in Milgram’s experiment)
92
Q

normative social influence

A

when motivation for compliance is desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection

93
Q

informational social influence

A

the process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like others “know something I don’t know”
ex) like when starting a new job, you just follow along with what you’re told to do

94
Q

factors influencing conformity (6)

A
  1. group size
  2. unanimity
  3. cohesion
  4. status
  5. accountability
  6. no prior commitment
95
Q

social structures composed of 5 elements

A 
statuses
social roles
groups
social networks
organizations
96
Q

social interactions

A

include expressing emotion, managing others’ impressions of you, communicating, and other social behaviors

97
Q

status

A

refers to all the socially defined positions within a society; one person can hold multiple statuses at a time

98
Q

master status

A

one that dominates the others and determines that individual’s general position in society; sometimes it isn’t the one that the individual prefers

99
Q

ascribed status

A

assigned to a person by society regardless of the person’s own efforts

100
Q

achieved status

A

largely due to the individual’s efforts

101
Q

social roles

A

expectations for people of a given social status; help contribute to society’s stability by making things more predictable

102
Q

role conflict

A

happens when there’s a conflict in society’s expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person
ex) a male nurse

103
Q

role strain

A

when single status results in conflicting expectations

ex) homosexuals being “too gay” or “not gay enough”

104
Q

social network

A

a web of social relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked to others as well as those in which people are indirectly connected through others

105
Q

organizations

A

large, impersonal groups that come together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently
are influenced by statuses and roles and help define statuses and roles

106
Q

utilitarian organizations

A

members get paid for their efforts; ex) businesses

107
Q

normative organizations

A

motivate membership based on morally relevant goals

ex) Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD)

108
Q

Coercive organizations

A

members don’t have a choice in joining

ex) prisions

109
Q

impression management/self presentation

A

the conscious or unconsious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others

110
Q

self handicapping

A

a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self blame when they do poorly

111
Q

dramaturgical perspective

A

stems from symbolic interactionism and posits that we imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others
theory suggests that our identities are not necessarily stable, but dependent on our interactions with others; in this way, we constantly remake who we are, depending on the situations we are in

112
Q

nonverbal communication

A

includes guestures, touch, body language, eye contact, facial expressions
subtler features: pitch, volume, rate, intonation, rhythm of voice

113
Q

front stage

A

we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people

114
Q

back stage

A

we can “let down our guard” and be ourselves

115
Q

attraction

A

helps explain much about friendship, romantic relationships, and other close social relationships

116
Q

proximity

A

geographic nearness to people can start friendships

117
Q

mere exposure effect

A

people prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli; familiarity breeds fondness

118
Q

appeaerance

A

can be a predictor of attraction

119
Q

similarity

A

impacts attraction

120
Q

aggression

A

broadly defined as behavior that’s forceful, hostile, or attacking

121
Q

frustration-aggression principle

A

suggests that when someone is blocked from achieveng a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression

122
Q

social support

A

determinant of health and wellbeing

123
Q

inclusive fitness

A

the number of offspring an organism has, how it supports its offspring, and how its offspring support others in a group
theory proposes that an organism can improve its overall genetic success through altruistic social behaviors

124
Q

altruistic behavior

A

helps ensure the success or survivial of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survivial of the individual

125
Q

society

A

a group of people who share a culture and live/interact with each other within a definable area

126
Q

sociology

A

attempts to understand the behavior of groups; study of how individuals interact with shape, and are subsequently shaped by, the society in which they live

127
Q

functionalism

A

view that society is a living organism with many parts and organs having a distinct purpose.
inequality benefits society

128
Q

Emile Eurkheim

A

proponent of functionalism
believed modern societies were complex; healthy societies would be able to achieve and maintain stability through their different interdependent parts
society should always be viewed holistically as a collective of social facts rather than individuals

129
Q

dyanmic equilibrium

A

complex societies involve many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability

130
Q

social facts

A

elements that serve some function in society, such as the laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and rules that make up a society

131
Q

manifest functions

A

intended and obvious consequences of a structure

132
Q

latent functions

A

unintended or less recognizable consequenes, and can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful

133
Q

social dysfunction

A

process that has undesirable consequences, and may actually reduce the stability of society

134
Q

conflict theory

A

society is a place where there will be inequality in resources, therefore individuals will compete for social, political, and material resources
social structures and institutions will reflect this competition in their degree of inherent inequaility
inequaility is detrimental to society

135
Q

Karl Marx

A 
proponent of conflict theory
argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and thos who labor and provide the manpower for production
believed capitalism would lead to self-destruction due to internal tensions
136
Q

Ludwig Gumplowicz

A

expanded on Marx’s ideas by saying society is shaped by war and conquest, and that cultural and ethnic conflicts led to certain groups becoming dominant over others

137
Q

Max Weber

A 
agreed with Marx however thought there could be more than one source of conflict, such as conflict over inequalities in political power and social status; that captialism may not self destruct
aruged that there were several factors that moderated people's reaction to inequality, such as agreement w/ authority figures, high rates of social mobility, and low rates of class difference
138
Q

symbolic interactionism

A

micro-level of observing society
examines the relationship between individuals and society by focusing on communication through language and symbols
interested in the symbols that people use to contribute values and beliefs to others
sees individual as active in shaping her society instead of as merely being acted upon by society

139
Q

social constructionism

A

people actively shape their reality through social interactions; something that’s constructed not inherent
doesn’t have to be true in nature ex) marriage
is a dynamic, ongoing process

140
Q

social institutions

A

complex of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contributes to social order by governing the behavior of people
they provide harmony, and allow for specialization and differentiation of skills

141
Q

functions of family

A

reproduction and monitioring of sexual behavior
protection
socialization-passing down norms and values
affection and compainionship
social status-social position based on fam. background and reputation

142
Q

nuclear family

A

direct blood relations

143
Q

extended family

A

grandparents, aunts, uncles, and others are included

144
Q

monogamy

A

two individuals married to only one another

145
Q

polygamy

A

allows a person to have multiple spouses

146
Q

polygyny

A

form of polygamy where man has mult. wives

147
Q

polyandry

A

form of polygamy where woman has mult. husbands

148
Q

residential segregation

A

refers to the separation of groups into different neighborhoods
not based on laws, but on enduring social patterns attributed to suburbanization, discrimination, and personal preferences

149
Q

environmental injustice

A

refers to the fact that people in poorer communities are more likely to be subjected to negative environmental impacts to their health and wellbeing

150
Q

religion

A

from functionalist point of view, it can create social cohesion (as well as dissent), social change (as well as control), and provide believers with meaning and purpose

151
Q

religiosity

A

refers to the extent of influence of religion in a person’s life

152
Q

fundamentalists

A

adhere strictly to religious beliefs

153
Q

rational-legal authority

A

U.S. government is based on this

legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document like the Constitution

154
Q

traditional authority

A

power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice

155
Q

charismatic authority

A

the power of persuasion

156
Q

captialism

A

pursuit of personal profit; benefits consumer by allowing for competition, which theoretically promotes higher quality and lower prices of goods and services
emphasize personal freedom by limiting government restrictions and regulations

157
Q

socialism

A

goods/services are produced for direct use instead of for profit
government intervenes to share property amongst all
everyone is provided with what they need to survive
economy is centrally controlled and run by the government

158
Q

wellfare captialism

A

most of economy is private w/ exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs w/in society
western europe deomstrates this

159
Q

state capitalism

A

companies are privately run, but work closely with government in forming laws and regulations

160
Q

food desert

A

lower-income urban environments where healthy food sources are scarce

161
Q

‘medical model’

A

U.S. experienced this; it emphasizes physical or medical factors as being causes of illness

162
Q

biopsychosocial model

A

aims to take into consideration the psychological, social, and cultural factors that influence health, indculding perception of illness, beliefs about health, community practices, etc… that may affect emotion states, medication compliance, and a multitude of other health-related outcomes

163
Q

culture

A

refers to a shared way of life; including the beliefs and practices that a social group shares

164
Q

symbolic culture

A

consists of symbols that are recognized by people of the same culture
involve values and norms

165
Q

material culture

A

involves the physical objects that are particular to that culture
includes clothing, hairstyle, food, and design of homes

166
Q

cultural universals

A

patterns or traits that are common to all people
pertain to basic human survival and needs, such as securing food and shelter, and also pertain to events that every human experiences, including birth, death, and illness

167
Q

values

A

a culture’s standard for evaluating what is good or bad

often define how people in a society should behave, but they may not actually reflect how people do behave

168
Q

beliefs

A

are convictions or principles people hold

169
Q

social stratification

A

serves to define differences but also serves to reinforce and perpetuate them
way people are categorized in society

170
Q

caste system

A

a closed stratification where people can’t do anything to change the category they’re born in

171
Q

class system

A

considers both social variables and individual initiative
groups people of similar wealth, education, etc…
classes are open, mobility is possible

172
Q

socioeconomic status (SES)

A

defined in terms of power, property, and prestige

173
Q

social mobility

A

ability to move up or down within a social stratification system

174
Q

upward mobility

A

an increase in social class

175
Q

downward mobility

A

a decrease in social class

176
Q

intergenerational mobility

A

increase/decrease in class between parents and children within a family

177
Q

intragenerational mobility

A

increase/decrease in class between different members of a family of the same generation

178
Q

social reproduction

A

structures and activities in place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one general to the next

179
Q

cultural capital

A

the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility
ex) education

180
Q

social capital

A 
the potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility
ex) someone from an upper middle class fam. who wants to become a doctor can use parents' friends for connections
181
Q

global stratification

A

compares the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries

182
Q

global inequality

A

certain countries hold a majority of resources
access to resources among countries impacts other social factors, such as mortality
the burden of inequality is placed on certain segments of the population

183
Q

relative poverty

A

the inability to meet the average standard of living within a society

184
Q

absolute poverty

A

the inability to meet a bare min. of basic necessities, including clean drinking water, food, safe housing, and reliable access to healthcare

MCAT Psychology/Sociology (5 decks)

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