Additional Terms Flashcards
1
Q
Children’s Parallel Play
A
Parallel play is a normal part of the behavior of preschool children, in which they will play by themselves but observe another child playing and adjust their behavior in response. Parallel play does not entail direct interaction between the children. As children reach school age, they are much more likely to engage in forms of play together.
2
Q
Reliability
A
how consistent an outcome is; can be a correct or incorrect outcome
3
Q
Validity
A
How well (accurately) a test measures what it’s supposed to measure
4
Q
More
A
norms that are deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society and have consequences if violated. Health behaviors (like seeking help for an acute medical illness) are standards of behavior that are necessary for the well-being of everyone; if a person does not seek help, they may be shunned by family members or friends.
5
Q
Folkways
A
norms that govern everyday behavior (like holding a door open).
6
Q
Taboos
A
are considered unacceptable by almost every culture (like cannibalism or incest).
7
Q
Kinship of affinity
A
one in which individuals are related by choice, such as through marriage, rather than through blood, such as the other choices.
8
Q
Anomie
A
refers to society feeling fragmented and lacking cohesiveness.
Theory: states that individuals who experience weakened social values are less likely to behave in ways that are helpful to that society.
Characteristics:
I. Rapid changes in society
II. Low levels of income
III. High heterogeneity
9
Q
Negativity bias
A
is when the negative aspects of a situation are focused upon, not the good aspects.
10
Q
Frontal Lobe
A
is primarily involved in reward, planning, motivation, and inhibitions. It also houses the motor cortex, which controls movement, but that is likely to be equally activated regardless of how well-known the piece of music is.
11
Q
Temporal Lobe
A
The portion of the cerebral cortex that is just above the ears and that is involved in hearing, language processing, and memory.
12
Q
Parietal Lobe
A
portion posterior to the frontal lobe, responsible for sensations such as pain, temperature, and touch
is responsible for two main functions. First, it integrates sensory information to form a single perception (cognition). Second, it constructs a spatial coordinate system to represent the external world.
13
Q
Occipital Lobe
A
that part of the cerebral cortex in either hemisphere of the brain lying in the back of the head; is the visual processing center.
14
Q
Corpus Collasum
A
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
15
Q
Cingulate Cortex
A
a part of the limbic system lying in cerebral cortex that processes cognitive information in emotion
16
Q
Basal Ganglia
A
Large clusters of neurons, located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex, that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements
17
Q
nucleus accumbens
A
plays a central role in the reward circuit. Its operation is based chiefly on two essential neurotransmitters: dopamine, which promotes desire, and serotonin, whose effects include satiety and inhibition.
18
Q
“thinning” during operant conditioning
A
refers to reducing the frequency of rewards for a given action.
19
Q
Kübler-Ross emotional stages of going through death
A
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
“Death Always Brings Definite Acceptance”
20
Q
Primary Aging
A
Aging related to biological factors and the physical body, like molecular changes
21
Q
Secondary Aging
A
Aging that relates to behavioral factors like diet and exercise.
22
Q
Within-Subjects Test
A
design controls for individual variations in a measurement by comparing the scores of a subject in one condition to the scores of the same subject in other conditions. Thus, each subject serves as his or her own control.
(1) increased power and (2) a reduction in error variance associated with individual differences.
23
Q
Fundamental inferential statistics principle
A
as the number of subjects increases, statistical power increases. This is why it is always better to have more subjects
24
Q
Between-Subjects Test
A
Different subjects serve as controls than as the experimental.
25
General Adaptation Syndrome
is a term created by Hans Selye to describe the body's short-term and long-term reactions to stress. Selye thought that the general adaptation syndrome involved two major systems of the body, the nervous system and the endocrine system. He then went on to outline what he considered as three distinctive stages in the syndrome's evolution. He called these stages the alarm reaction (AR), the stage of resistance (SR), and the stage of exhaustion (SE).
26
Activation-synthesis theory
deals with the differences in neuronal activity of the brainstem during waking and REM sleep, and the hypothesis proposes that dreams result from brain activation during REM sleep
27
Theory of Cognitive Appraisal
explains the mental processes which influence the stressors. According to the theory, stress is a two-way process; it involves the production of stressors by the environment as well as the response of an individual subjected to these stressors. Cognitive appraisal occurs when a person considers the threat posed by and the resources needed to minimize the stressors affecting them.
28
House money effect
after a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk since the new money is not treated as one's own.
29
Gambler's fallacy
is the mistaken belief that, if something happens more frequently than normal during some period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa. For example, someone who bets on red on a roulette wheel because the last 5 spins have all landed on black.
30
Prisoner's Dilemma
is a standard example from psychological game theory that shows why two completely "rational" individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so.
31
Ratio level of measurement
is one in which there are a range of quantitative responses, ordered at equally-spaced intervals, and with it being possible to score 0 (complete absence of the quantity).
32
Assimilation
is a strategy in which the individual seeks to interact with the new culture and reject the native culture.
33
Separation
is rejecting the new culture and maintaining the native culture.
34
Marginalization
involves the rejection of both cultures.
35
Integration
involves identifying with both cultures.
36
Relative deprivation theory
posits that individuals who perceive themselves as having less resources than others will often act in ways to obtain these resources.
37
General strain theory
holds that individuals who have experienced negative events feel negative emotions, which lead to negative behaviors.
38
Protectionism
refers to a country rejecting trade with others and being isolative, which is inversely proportional to globalization.
39
Globalization
the process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale.
40
Ideal bureaucracy
1. A formal hierarchical structure
2. Management by rules
3. Organization by functional specialty
4. An "up-focused" or "in-focused" mission
5. Purposely impersonal
6. Employment based on technical qualifications
7. Predisposition to grow in staff "above the line."
41
pathway used to transmit auditory information
Cochlea → organ of Corti → medial geniculate nucleus → auditory cortex
42
Horizontal cells (optics)
assist the bipolar cells by processing and organizing visual information. Doing so allows us to discern the edges of objects and detect visual contrasts.
43
optic chaism
is the point at which the nasal optic fibers cross paths.
44
optic tracts
represent the pathways used by optic fibers after the optic chiasm
45
visual cortex
the part of the cerebral cortex that receives and processes sensory nerve impulses from the eyes.
46
Parvocellular cells (optics)
are responsible for identifying the shapes and details of stationary objects.
47
Magnocellular cells (optics)
detect motion without perceiving small or fine details.
48
Cones (optics)
photoreceptors that detect colors
49
Rods (optics)
responsible for vision at low light levels (scotopic vision). They do not mediate color vision, and have a low spatial acuity.
50
Vestibules
plays an essential role in maintaining balance and sensing linear acceleration. Within the inner ear
51
Scalae
are chambers within the cochlea.
52
Eustachian tube
helps the ear maintain equal pressure with the environment.
53
Vestibulocochlear nerve
another term for the auditory nerve
54
Cochlea
the spiral cavity of the inner ear containing the organ of Corti, which produces nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations.
55
Superior olive
a region in the brain stem, is responsible for localizing sound.
56
inferior colicullus
helps us coordinate head rotation with visual focus on a specific point.
57
medial geniculate nucleus
receives and transmits a great deal of auditory information. However, it does not specifically relate to sound localization or to fixation on a point in the visual field.
58
Semicircular canals
do not assist in sound localization; instead, they perceive rotation of the body or head.
59
auditory pathway in humans
auditory nerve → inferior colliculus → medial geniculate nucleus → auditory cortex.
60
middle ear
contains three small bones, or “ossicles,” named the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup).
61
thalamus
plays a key role in the processing of all sensation except for smell.
62
Meissner's corpuscles
transmit sensory impulses associated with light touch.
63
Free nerve endings
respond mainly to pain and temperature.
64
Merkel's discs
sense deep pressure and texture
65
Somatosensation
is a generalized term for any sensation of touch
66
Proprioception
is the ability to orient ourselves and locate our own body parts in space.
67
Gestalt principle of good continuation
explains that we tend to perceive two or more objects as separate, even when they intersect.
68
Retinal disparity
is a binocular cue in which we use the distinct angles by which we perceive an object to determine depth, or its distance away.
69
Gestalt principle of closure
states that when a space is enclosed by an incomplete contour or line, it will generally be perceived as a closed figure.
70
relative size
relates to the brain’s interpretation of larger objects as closer.
71
motion parallax
is the interpretation of faster-moving objects as closer.
72
relative height
is the brain’s perception of objects that are higher in our field of vision as farther away.
73
mediating variable
In cases where a mediating variable is present, the original predictor (or independent) variable works indirectly through a more immediate cause (the mediator variable) to yield a final effect (the outcome, or dependent, variable). The mediator adds to the overall variance accounted for in the data and can explain the relationship between the dependent and independent variables.
74
moderating variable
a variable that specifies conditions under which a given predictor is related to an outcome. The moderator explains "when" a dependent and independent variable are related.
75
instrumental support
refers to the various types of tangible help that others may provide to an individual (e.g. help with childcare/housekeeping, provision of transportation, or giving of money).
76
companionship support
is the type of support that gives someone a sense of social belonging. This can be seen as the presence of companions to engage in shared social activities.
77
emotional support
refers to the actions that people take that make us feel loved and cared for. This support includes things that bolster our sense of self-worth (e.g., talking over a problem or providing encouragement or positive feedback); such support frequently takes the form of non-tangible types of assistance.
78
informational support
is sometimes included within the category of instrumental support and refers to the help that others may offer through the provision of information.
79
social capital
the benefit one receives from one’s social networks
80
cultural capital
is a social asset (not money) that helps provide social mobility beyond simple monetary resources. Examples of cultural capital include a style of dress, a university education, a manner of speaking, or specialized knowledge.
81
social reproduction
involves the transmission of ideas, values, and behaviors between generations that lead the younger generation to reproduce the social status or structures of their parents.
82
feminist theory
is a branch of feminism that seeks to explain the nature of gender inequality. It examines women's social roles, experience, interests, and politics in a variety of fields such as education, medicine, and business.
83
reticular formation
is a set of connected nuclei in the brain stem that is responsible for regulating arousal and sleep-wake transitions. It also helps mediate transitions from relaxed wakefulness to periods of high attention.
84
primary motor cortex
operates in conjunction with the pre-motor cortex, the supplementary motor area, and the posterior parietal cortex to plan and execute movements.
85
ambient stressors
are those chronic environmental stressors that cannot be changed (or are perceived as unchangeable) by the efforts of the individual subject to them. Things like the economy and climate change would be examples of ambient stressors.
86
acute stressor
is one that is present over a short period of time.
87
microstressors
are small daily hassles like dealing with traffic or irritating coworkers.
88
crisis
is a sudden, rare occurrence such as a natural disaster or war that causes a person a great deal of stress.
89
nigrostriatal bundle
is associated with movement. Loss of neurons in this area is associated with Parkinson’s disease.
90
prefrontal cortex
is associated with executive function and short-term memory.
91
thymus
is a specialized organ of the immune system where T cells mature.
92
adrenaline
epinephrine; secreted by adrenal glands (also secrete corticosteroids i.e. cortisol)
93
normative organization
one which people volunteer to participate in.
94
George Mead's self: "me"
collection of attitudes taken from society
95
George Mead's self: "I"
autonomous sense of self that reacts to the “me.”
96
Hans Eysenck
is noted for the first empirical study he published on genetics of personality in 1951, which investigated the trait of neuroticism in identical (i.e., monozygotic) and fraternal (i.e., dizygotic twins).
97
Gordon Allport
is known in connection to the trait perspective of personality. He argued that three key types of traits contribute to personality: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits.
98
Structures in core limbic system
amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex, septal area, and hypothalamus.
99
prescriptive (as in prescriptive meritocracy for example)
refers to what an individual believes should occur
100
descriptive (as in descriptive meritocracy for example)
refers to what one perceives as actually occurring.
101
meritocracy
is one in which selections, appointments, and advancement are made on the basis of merit – skills, credentials, achievements, etc.
102
projection
involves a person taking their feelings about themselves and projecting them onto an external source. In this case, the boy is experiencing anxiety and frustration about being perceived as childish and irresponsible, and he projects those fears onto the puppy.
103
transference
is the inappropriate transferring of feelings about one relationship to another. The classic example is a patient transferring childhood feelings about a parent onto their therapist.
104
social construction theory
views human activity as consisting of human creations made through countless individual human choices and through interactions, primarily mediated through language. The theory does not hold that things exist in a universal sense outside of their historical context.
105
cross over experimental design
occurs when participants participate in each group in a study.
106
cross sectional experimental design
involves the measurement of a group of people at a particular time
107
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
1. pre conventional
characterized by more concern for rewards and punishments than social rules and laws.
2.conventional
Interpersonal accord and conformity
(Social norms)
(The good boy/girl attitude)
3. post conventional
characterized by concern for morality and the good of society, rather than social rules and laws.
108
Demographic transition stage 1 (Pre-transition)
Characterised by high birth rates, and high fluctuating death rates.
Population growth was kept low by Malthusian "preventative" (late age at marriage) and "positive" (famine, war, pestilence) checks.
109
Demographic transition stage 2 (Early transition)
During the early stages of the transition, the death rate begins to fall.
As birth rates remain high, the population starts to grow rapidly.
110
Demographic transition stage 3 (Late transition)
Birth rates start to decline.
| The rate of population growth decelerates.
111
Demographic transition stage 4 (Post transition)
Post-transitional societies are characterised by low birth and low death rates.
Population growth is negligible, or even enters a decline.
112
Culture shock
is a sense of disorientation as a person experiences an unfamiliar culture. Typically, culture shock is thought of as consisting of four phases: honeymoon, negotiation, adjustment, and adaption.
113
melatonin
is a hormone produced by the pineal gland that is inhibited by light.
114
Kelley’s covariation model outlined three factors
distinctiveness cues, consensus cues, and consistency cues
115
consensus cues
focuses on the closeness of the behavior to that which is typically expected by society.
ex) student gets accepted into honors committee despite failing grade b/c committee sees it as everyone fails that certain class.
116
consistency cues
relate the person’s current and past behavior, not her current behavior with that which is expected by society.
117
distinctiveness cues
monitor a single individual’s actions across a variety of scenarios.
118
defensive attribution hypothesis
stems from the human fear that terrible consequences might happen to us simply due to chance. To avoid being scared by this idea, we tend to blame the victims of an accident or to draw distinctions between ourselves and them (as in, “She was behaving in a way that I never would, so this could never happen to me”). This victim-blaming is most prevalent when the incident has severe consequences and when we perceive ourselves as similar to the victim.
119
somatic disorders
are those which involve physical symptoms, often without clear physiological origins. These symptoms typically lead to significant stress and greatly impede the individual's day-to-day life. In particular, conversion disorder involves neurological symptoms (blindness, paralysis, sensory issues, etc.).
ex) conversion disorder and illness anxiety disorder
120
illness anxiety disorder
formerly known as hypochondriasis, involves anxiety and extreme stress centered around the fear of acquiring an illness.
121
ego-syntotic disorders
A number of personality disorders, along with anorexia nervosa, exemplify ego-syntonic conditions. They are those that align with the patient’s self-concept. In other words, instead of feeling sick or abnormal, the patient feels good and may even enjoy her disease, considering it to be part of her usual behavior.
122
somatic symptom disorder
perceive pain or other symptoms that cannot be explained by known causes. Additionally, these people tend to be very preoccupied with their physical health to the point of obsession. Somatic symptom disorder is closely related to illness anxiety disorder, in which individuals are anxious about their health but lack clear symptoms. Hypochondrasis has been recently changed to this.
123
altercasting technique of impression management
involves projecting an identity on another individual in a way that is congruent with one’s own goals. This is a manipulative method that increases the likelihood that the listener will act to match the projected identity.
ex) salesperson uses a statement like “As a health-conscious person, you should be very interested in probiotics”to increase probiotic pill sales.
124
Biological game theory
over time, equilibrium must form between fighters and avoiders when it comes to resource attainment.
125
sensory bias
occurs when organisms exploit a non-mating preference to gain access to potential mating opportunities.
126
indicator trait
are phenotypic expressions that convey the health, well-being, and fitness of an organism to potential mates.
ex) shiny coat
127
inclusive fitness
the ability of an individual organism to pass on its genes to the next generation, taking into account the shared genes passed on by the organism's close relatives.
an organism's genetic success is believed to be derived from cooperation and altruistic behaviour.
128
functionalist manifest function
intended contrubutions of social structures. ex) health care system of US primarily concerned with maintaining health and treating illness.
129
functionalist latent function
unintended contributions of social structures. ex) health care system of US hosptials serve as centers of community values and identity.
130
A-not-B error
the individual perseveres in looking for an object in a location in which it was previously placed, even with the knowledge that it has been placed elsewhere. Common in infants under 12 months of age.
131
Lateral geniculate nucleus
is the area behind the retina that serves as an intermediate way station for electrochemical signals passed from the retina to the visual cortex of the brain.
Damage to LGN would impair vision.
132
optimism bias
describes the belief that bad things will not happen to oneself in the future.
133
spreading activation model
posits that the mind maintains networks of words that are associated with each other to varying degrees. When one word is activated, those words with the strongest associations to the activated word are also activated.
134
Feature detection theory
is a theory of visual perception that proposes that different neurons fire in response to detecting different features; in other words, some neurons fire only in response to vertical lines or motion or contrast.
135
bottom-up processing
suggests that we start with the information gathered by sensory receptors and build up to a final representation in our brain; this type of processing tends to be used more with novel stimuli.
136
top-down processing
refers to perception that is driven by cognition.
137
inductive reasoning
moves from specific instances into a generalized conclusion; accuracy of inductive reasoning is questionable.
138
deductive reasoning
moves from generalized principles that are known to be true to a true and specific conclusion.
139
reinforcement schedules: resistance to extinction when learning from least resistant to most resistant
Fixed interval < Variable interval < Fixed Ratio < Variable Ratio
140
anarchy
a state where individuals disregard and violate the laws of society.
