Additional Terms Flashcards
Children’s Parallel Play
Parallel play is a normal part of the behavior of preschool children, in which they will play by themselves but observe another child playing and adjust their behavior in response. Parallel play does not entail direct interaction between the children. As children reach school age, they are much more likely to engage in forms of play together.
Reliability
how consistent an outcome is; can be a correct or incorrect outcome
Validity
How well (accurately) a test measures what it’s supposed to measure
More
norms that are deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society and have consequences if violated. Health behaviors (like seeking help for an acute medical illness) are standards of behavior that are necessary for the well-being of everyone; if a person does not seek help, they may be shunned by family members or friends.
Folkways
norms that govern everyday behavior (like holding a door open).
Taboos
are considered unacceptable by almost every culture (like cannibalism or incest).
Kinship of affinity
one in which individuals are related by choice, such as through marriage, rather than through blood, such as the other choices.
Anomie
refers to society feeling fragmented and lacking cohesiveness.
Theory: states that individuals who experience weakened social values are less likely to behave in ways that are helpful to that society.
Characteristics:
I. Rapid changes in society
II. Low levels of income
III. High heterogeneity
Negativity bias
is when the negative aspects of a situation are focused upon, not the good aspects.
Frontal Lobe
is primarily involved in reward, planning, motivation, and inhibitions. It also houses the motor cortex, which controls movement, but that is likely to be equally activated regardless of how well-known the piece of music is.
Temporal Lobe
The portion of the cerebral cortex that is just above the ears and that is involved in hearing, language processing, and memory.
Parietal Lobe
portion posterior to the frontal lobe, responsible for sensations such as pain, temperature, and touch
is responsible for two main functions. First, it integrates sensory information to form a single perception (cognition). Second, it constructs a spatial coordinate system to represent the external world.
Occipital Lobe
that part of the cerebral cortex in either hemisphere of the brain lying in the back of the head; is the visual processing center.
Corpus Collasum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
Cingulate Cortex
a part of the limbic system lying in cerebral cortex that processes cognitive information in emotion
Basal Ganglia
Large clusters of neurons, located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex, that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements
nucleus accumbens
plays a central role in the reward circuit. Its operation is based chiefly on two essential neurotransmitters: dopamine, which promotes desire, and serotonin, whose effects include satiety and inhibition.
“thinning” during operant conditioning
refers to reducing the frequency of rewards for a given action.
Kübler-Ross emotional stages of going through death
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
“Death Always Brings Definite Acceptance”
Primary Aging
Aging related to biological factors and the physical body, like molecular changes
Secondary Aging
Aging that relates to behavioral factors like diet and exercise.
Within-Subjects Test
design controls for individual variations in a measurement by comparing the scores of a subject in one condition to the scores of the same subject in other conditions. Thus, each subject serves as his or her own control.
(1) increased power and (2) a reduction in error variance associated with individual differences.
Fundamental inferential statistics principle
as the number of subjects increases, statistical power increases. This is why it is always better to have more subjects
Between-Subjects Test
Different subjects serve as controls than as the experimental.
General Adaptation Syndrome
is a term created by Hans Selye to describe the body’s short-term and long-term reactions to stress. Selye thought that the general adaptation syndrome involved two major systems of the body, the nervous system and the endocrine system. He then went on to outline what he considered as three distinctive stages in the syndrome’s evolution. He called these stages the alarm reaction (AR), the stage of resistance (SR), and the stage of exhaustion (SE).
Activation-synthesis theory
deals with the differences in neuronal activity of the brainstem during waking and REM sleep, and the hypothesis proposes that dreams result from brain activation during REM sleep
Theory of Cognitive Appraisal
explains the mental processes which influence the stressors. According to the theory, stress is a two-way process; it involves the production of stressors by the environment as well as the response of an individual subjected to these stressors. Cognitive appraisal occurs when a person considers the threat posed by and the resources needed to minimize the stressors affecting them.
House money effect
after a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk since the new money is not treated as one’s own.
Gambler’s fallacy
is the mistaken belief that, if something happens more frequently than normal during some period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa. For example, someone who bets on red on a roulette wheel because the last 5 spins have all landed on black.
Prisoner’s Dilemma
is a standard example from psychological game theory that shows why two completely “rational” individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so.
Ratio level of measurement
is one in which there are a range of quantitative responses, ordered at equally-spaced intervals, and with it being possible to score 0 (complete absence of the quantity).
Assimilation
is a strategy in which the individual seeks to interact with the new culture and reject the native culture.
Separation
is rejecting the new culture and maintaining the native culture.
Marginalization
involves the rejection of both cultures.
Integration
involves identifying with both cultures.
Relative deprivation theory
posits that individuals who perceive themselves as having less resources than others will often act in ways to obtain these resources.
General strain theory
holds that individuals who have experienced negative events feel negative emotions, which lead to negative behaviors.
Protectionism
refers to a country rejecting trade with others and being isolative, which is inversely proportional to globalization.
Globalization
the process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale.
Ideal bureaucracy
- A formal hierarchical structure
- Management by rules
- Organization by functional specialty
- An “up-focused” or “in-focused” mission
- Purposely impersonal
- Employment based on technical qualifications
- Predisposition to grow in staff “above the line.”
pathway used to transmit auditory information
Cochlea → organ of Corti → medial geniculate nucleus → auditory cortex
Horizontal cells (optics)
assist the bipolar cells by processing and organizing visual information. Doing so allows us to discern the edges of objects and detect visual contrasts.
optic chaism
is the point at which the nasal optic fibers cross paths.
optic tracts
represent the pathways used by optic fibers after the optic chiasm
visual cortex
the part of the cerebral cortex that receives and processes sensory nerve impulses from the eyes.
Parvocellular cells (optics)
are responsible for identifying the shapes and details of stationary objects.
Magnocellular cells (optics)
detect motion without perceiving small or fine details.
Cones (optics)
photoreceptors that detect colors
Rods (optics)
responsible for vision at low light levels (scotopic vision). They do not mediate color vision, and have a low spatial acuity.
Vestibules
plays an essential role in maintaining balance and sensing linear acceleration. Within the inner ear
Scalae
are chambers within the cochlea.
Eustachian tube
helps the ear maintain equal pressure with the environment.
Vestibulocochlear nerve
another term for the auditory nerve
Cochlea
the spiral cavity of the inner ear containing the organ of Corti, which produces nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations.
Superior olive
a region in the brain stem, is responsible for localizing sound.
inferior colicullus
helps us coordinate head rotation with visual focus on a specific point.
