SEJIL Flashcards
Define Linguistics as a discipline!
o linguistics – the scientific study of language
o linguists apply the scientific method to conduct formal studies of speech sounds, grammatical structures, and meaning across all the world’s languages
o linguistics aims to understand how the language faculty of the mind works and to describe how language itself works
o linguistics involves the analysis of language form, language meaning, and language context
o linguists traditionally analyse human language by observing an interplay between sound and meaning
o linguistics also deals with the social, cultural, historical, and political factors that influence language, through which linguistic and analyse language-based context is often determined
Fields associated with Linguistics?
Phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, stylistics…
Branches of Linguistics?
General, applied, descriptive (synchronic), normative, comparative, geographic or areal lingustics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, computational linguistics, historical (diachronic) linguistics, psycholinguistics
Position of Linguistics among other sciences?
o linguistics, unlike mathematics, doesn’t give us new skills or abilities; in math, learning abstract concepts helps us understand things better; but in linguistics, we only learn how we already think and speak—it doesn’t make us better at doing it
o linguistics is more about understanding how we communicate and organize our thoughts; even though it’s fascinating and helps us see how our mind works, it doesn’t actually improve our ability to think or express ourselves any more than we already do – that’s why it’s considered less practical compared to other sciences
Language? Language vs speech, etc.?
o language – the system of signs that people use in language activity
o by its nature, like any system, language is abstract, and speech is its concrete realisation in matter
o while language tries to maintain stability, speech constantly pushes for change, adapting to new contexts, ideas, and ways of communicating
o linguistic creativity arises from their interaction: the ability of speech and language to constantly adapt to the new needs of linguistic practice
What’s a linguistic sign? What two inseparable parts is it made up of?
o language is a system of signs
o a linguistic sign is a fundamental concept in language, representing how we communicate meaning; language, as a system of signs, works by using these signs to convey information;
o a sign is a complex entity with two key functions:
o mapping information: it connects to something in the real world (referred to as “extra-linguistic reality”) based on human experience or activity
o communication: it allows that information to be transmitted to others
o the linguistic sign is made up of two inseparable parts:
o signified: the concept or meaning that the sign represents (what the sign is about, like the idea of “tree”)
o signifier: the form that expresses the concept (the word “tree,” for example, or a sound or symbol that represents it)
When did the Age of Linguistics begin? What are the key figures associated with it?
o linguistics, as a field, has very ancient roots; if we consider the first written records of grammatical analysis, it is one of the oldest disciplines; however, if we mark its true beginning with the creation of the first descriptive grammar of a language, linguistics would still be very old, dating back to figures like the Indian scholar Panini or the philosopher Plato
o the field made a major leap forward in the 19th century when systematic comparative and historical studies began; this involved comparing languages and studying their historical development, leading to typological studies (classifying languages) and comparative grammar; these developments marked the modern foundation of linguistics
o the origins of various branches of linguistics are linked to key historical figures:
* Philosophy of language began with Plato.
* Descriptive grammar traces back to Panini.
* Normative grammar (setting language standards in Europe) is associated with Dionysius and Varro.
* Historical linguistics began with Franz Bopp.
* General linguistics started with Wilhelm von Humboldt.
* Theoretical linguistics in the modern sense was founded by Ferdinand de Saussure.
*However, there is no consensus among linguists about when linguistics as a field truly began
Functions of Language?
o language has various functions only some can be considered somewhat communicative
o other functions:
1. conveying factual information to other people
2. convincing other people what to do
3. entertaining yourself or other people
4. belonging to a particular group
5. expressing personality
6. expressing mood and feelings
7. expressing relationships with other people
8. creating mental images of the world
o all these functions are essential, and it is a challenging task to determine that some are more important than others; it varies based on the context of a situation
Speech Event and its key components?
o a speech event involves the following key components that help shape the communication process:
1. sender: the person or entity sending the message.
2. receiver: the person or entity receiving the message.
3. context: the situation or environment in which the communication takes place, influencing its meaning.
4. code: the language or symbols used to convey the message (e.g., spoken words, written text, gestures).
5. contact: the medium through which the communication occurs (e.g., face-to-face conversation, phone call, email).
The content of the message is influenced by six factors which are…?
o the content of the message is influenced by six factors:
1. referential aspect: the factual content or information conveyed by the message.
2. emotional aspect: the feelings or emotions expressed in the message.
3. connotative: the additional meanings or associations that words carry beyond their literal definition.
4. phatic function: the social function of language, which helps establish or maintain social relationships (e.g., small talk).
5. metalinguistic: the aspect of communication that involves discussing or clarifying language itself (e.g., explaining terms).
6. poetic: the aesthetic quality of the message, focusing on its form, style, and creative expression.
What is language extinction? Why is the number of speakers alone not a definitive indicator of a language’s vitality?
o the number of speakers alone is not a definitive indicator of a language’s vitality – it must be considered within the context of its community
o in some isolated communities, as few as 500 speakers can signify hope for the language’s future; in minority communities residing in the suburbs of major cities, the prospect of 500 speakers preserving their language is slim
o data show that eight world languages have 100 million speakers each (Mandarin, Spanish, English, Bengali, Hindi, Portuguese, Russian and Japanese) making a total of almost 2.4 billion speakers
Why are languages dying out?
o Language Death as a Common Phenomenon: Many people believe that language extinction is becoming more frequent, largely based on broad generalizations.
o Strengthening States and Global Languages: In the 20th century, many states became stronger and more defined, often promoting official languages. At the same time, global languages (like English, Spanish, and Mandarin) gained dominance, putting pressure on minority languages.
o Pressure on Minority Languages: As a result of these changes, minority languages face significant challenges and are at risk of dying out.
o Factors Leading to Language Death: A language typically dies when all its speakers pass away. However, a language can also disappear even if its speakers are still alive. Anything that threatens the community of speakers—such as natural disasters, diseases, famine, genocide, and political or economic pressures—can also endanger the language itself.
Why should we be bothered by language extinction?
o because we need diversity
o languages are an expression of identity
o languages are repositories of history
o languages enrich the total human knowledge
o languages are interesting in themselves
Why study languages?
o there are many reasons to study language:
1. Growing Interest: More people are interested in language studies today, leading to many books being published. In the 1980s, a wider audience emerged beyond just linguists and language students, although many people still don’t engage with this material.
2. Applied Interest: The audience for language studies has expanded due to practical applications.
3. Interdisciplinary Learning: Studying language can provide valuable insights into other scientific fields.
4. Practical Benefits: Understanding language helps us in various aspects of life:
o Economists can improve profits.
o Language learners can progress more easily.
o People can better understand hidden meanings and reduce misunderstandings.
o There is improved comprehension of poetry and politics.
o Technological advancements can occur more smoothly.
o Children with language development issues can make better progress.
In summary, studying language offers valuable insights and practical benefits across various fields and everyday life.
Languages by degree of endangerment?
o vital languages – not threatened
o vital but small languages - they have about 1000 speakers and are spoken in communities that are isolated or have a solid internal structure
o endangered languages - a sufficient number of people speak them; survival of such languages is possible, but only under favourable conditions
o almost extinct languages - a small number of older people speaks them
o potentially endangered languages - socially and economically marginalised languages, under the strong influence of a more prominent language
o endangered languages - few children learn them, and the youngest speakers who have a good command of these languages are already adults
o seriously endangered languages - critical state, with the youngest speakers who speak them being at least 50 years old
o dying languages - only a few very old speakers speak them well
o extinct languages - they don’t have a single speaker
Approaches and methods that have been used to find out about children’s language and their results
- diaries – the oldest approach, a testament to the enduring curiosity of scholars like August Schleicher & Charles Darwin
- recordings – started with the invention of the tape recorder and later of the videorecorders
- experiments
- tests
- profiles
- other procedures
Two main research paradigms?
- no single way of studying children’s language
- two main paradigms are found: naturalistic sampling and experimentation
Explain naturalistic sampling!
- sample of a child’s spontaneous use of language is recorded in familiar and comfortable surroundings; child’s home = best place
- there can be problems – acoustic quality; presence of the researcher, etc.
A) although they are informative about speech production, they give little guidance about the way children understand what they hear around them
B) samples cannot contain everything, and they easily miss some important features of a child’s linguistic ability
C) they do not provide enough instances of a developing feature
Explain experimentation and two kinds of experiments!
- many detailed findings have been uncovered
- the complexity of the research process presents a significant challenge in generalising the findings
- cross-sectional studies: ‘different subjects’ refers to the participants in the study at each age; this means that the group of children being studied changes as they grow older, potentially influencing the results
Two kinds of experiments: talking dolls & task effects
* talking dolls: In these experiments, children are introduced to a doll or toy (like a toy panda) that makes speech mistakes. Children aged 3 to 5 are told this toy is learning to talk, and they interact with it to help correct its errors. This setup is used to see if children can recognize and correct language errors.
* task effects: Here, children are given simple instructions, like “Put the car behind the truck,” to test their understanding of specific words, such as “behind.” However, this experiment faces challenges: “behind” could mean different things depending on the child’s perspective or the experimenter’s perspective. This can lead to confusion, as it’s unclear if the child should interpret “behind” based on their view, the experimenter’s view, or general world knowledge.
Problems of individual differences and observer effects?
- they should be considered: sex, intelligence, personality, and social background
- there are fast developers and slow developers
- samples are usually tiny
- there are observer effects in experiments: e.g. mothers
What is CHILDES?
- a very modern method of computational analysis and data processing that might revolutionise the study of language acquisition
- there is a problem of different kinds of transcribing
What are profiles?
- profiles—detailed observations or records of a child’s language use—researchers can get a fuller picture of the child’s language abilities than they would from a standard test; profiles allow them to see which grammatical structures the child is starting to use correctly, where they may still struggle, and how these abilities are growing in different parts of grammar at the same time
Speech production & speech comprehension?
- two distinct skills that acquiring a language involves
- speech production is much easier to study, but studying comprehension is far more complicated because we need to consider not only what is spoken to the child but also the situation in which it is uttered, and the child’s prior knowledge of the world
Mean length of utterance (MLU)?
- one of the most widely practised indices of grammatical development in young children
- the total number of utterances in a sample is divided by the total number of words or morphemes
Theories of language acquisition?
Imitation
* language acquisition a process of imitation and reinforcement – i.e. children learn to speak by copying the utterances heard around them and by having their responses strengthened by the repetitions, corrections, and other reactions that adults provide
* this theory does explain why children use forms like wented, taked, mices, mouses, and sheeps – they did not hear these patterns from adults, but they used them, because children assume that grammatical usage is regular, and try to work out for themselves what the forms ought to be – a reasoning process known as analogy
Innateness
* an alternative proposal arising out of Noam Chomsky’s generative linguistics
* it was argued that children must be born with an innate capacity for language development: the human brain is ready for language, in the sense that when children are exposed to speech, certain general principles for discovering or structuring language automatically and efficiently begin to operate these principles constitute a child’s language acquisition device (LAD)
* many scholars agree that some such notion is needed to explain the remarkable speed with which children learn to speak and the considerable similarity in the way grammatical patterns are acquired across different children and languages
Cognition
* argues that language acquisition must be viewed within the context of a child’s intellectual development
* linguistic structures will only emerge if there is a solid cognitive foundation in place for instance, before children can use structures of comparison (This car is more significant than that), they must first have developed the conceptual ability to make relative judgments of size
Role of input, adult language in childrens’ development?
- for many years, following the innateness hypothesis, the role of adult language in children’s development was underestimated. However, research on motherese (a term from the 1970s) showed that the language mothers use with their children is not as simplistic or fragmented as previously thought. Instead, mothers often simplify their speech, using specific utterances to clarify meaning. They also frequently use diminutive and reduplicative words (like “doggie” or “choo choo”)
- Later studies highlighted the importance of fatherese, showing that fathers also play a crucial role in their children’s language development. Overall, extensive research on parentese (or caretaker speech) has been vital in enhancing our understanding of how adult language impacts children’s language acquisition.
Stages of sound production?
- Stage 1 (0-8 weeks): Basic Biological Noises
o Babies make reflexive sounds related to biological needs, like breathing and eating.
o These early sounds are not language-specific but share features with later speech, such as the use of airflow, rhythmic vocalization, and pitch patterns. - Stage 2 (8-20 weeks): Cooing and Laughing
o Babies begin to coo, producing sounds as they start to control their tongue and vocal cords.
o There’s noticeable lip movement and tongue thrusting, indicating the first steps toward speech production. - Stage 3 (20-30 weeks): Vocal Play
o Babies produce longer segments of sound, combining consonants and vowels in repeated sequences, showing more complexity in their vocalizations. - Stage 4 (25-50 weeks): Babbling
o Babbling becomes more stable, using a smaller set of sounds (like “bababa”) repeatedly.
o This stage is linked to later spoken language, with the brain playing a key role in developing these sounds. - Stage 5 (9-18 months): Melodic Utterance
o Towards the end of the first year, babies’ sounds begin to show variations in melody, rhythm, and tone.
o Parents start to interpret these utterances as having intentions, such as asking questions or expressing wants.
Sentence structure in kids?
- Holophrases: These are single-word utterances that convey the meaning of longer sentences. For example, when a child says “Ball,” it could mean any of the following: “This is a ball,” “Give me the ball,” “Kick the ball,” “This is my ball,” or “Is it a ball?”
- Early Sentences: Around the age of 2, many children begin to produce sentences that are three to four words long.
- Major Grammatical Advances: By age 3, children typically make significant strides in grammar, beginning to create sentences that contain more than one clause.
- Subordination: Sentences that use subordinating clauses (dependent clauses that cannot stand alone) appear later in development.
- Asking Questions: In the earliest stages, children often use intonation to indicate questions, such as saying, “Is Daddy there?” A key advancement occurs when they learn to use the verb “to be.”
- Common Errors in Question Formation: Two-year-olds often make typical errors when forming questions, such as:
- “Whose is that?” (instead of “Whose is this?”)
- “What are you did?” (instead of “What did you do?”)
- “What did you bought?” (instead of “What did you buy?”)
- “Is it’s my car?” (instead of “Is it my car?”)
- “Don’t he wanted it?” (instead of “Doesn’t he want it?”)
Semantic development and categories of early vocabulary?
- Word Acquisition Rate: On average, it takes children about 4.8 months to expand their vocabulary from 10 to 50 words.
- Content of Early Vocabulary: Young children’s early vocabulary primarily consists of “here and now” words, which relate to their immediate environment and experiences.
Categories of Early Vocabulary:
1. People: daddy, baba, grandma, man, and postman (usually relatives and visitors).
2. Actions: give, jump, kiss, gone, bye-bye, and hello.
3. Food: milk, juice, drink, and apple.
4. Body Parts: such as mouth and nose.
5. Clothing: nappy/diaper, shoes, and coat.
6. Animals: like doggie, cat, horse, and lion.
7. Vehicles: car, choo-choo, and brrm (often imitative sounds).
8. Toys and Games
9. Household Objects:
10. Deictic Words: words that indicate position or ownership, such as that, mine, and them.
Three errors in the meaning of early children’s words?
Children do not simply learn a word along with its meaning; instead, they must figure out what each word means through their experiences. This process often leads to errors as they explore language.
1. Overextension:
o In this error, children use a word too broadly, applying it to objects that share some common feature, such as shape, color, or size.
o Examples:
“Dog” might be used to refer to all animals.
“Moon” could be used for all round objects.
2. Underextension:
o Here, children use a word in a more limited way than it is used by adults, applying it to fewer examples than it should encompass.
o Examples:
“Dog” might only refer to the family pet and not to other dogs.
“Shoes” might only refer to the child’s own shoes and not to anyone else’s.
3. Mismatch:
o In this case, children use a word incorrectly without any clear reason for the mistake. The connection between the word and the object is often unclear or nonsensical.
o Examples:
Referring to a telephone as a “tractor.”
There’s usually no obvious link to explain why the child makes this misidentification.
Speech interaction in kids?
From the moment a baby is born, mothers instinctively engage in communication, even though the baby doesn’t yet have language skills.
* Early Communication: Mothers often talk to their newborns using the baby’s natural sounds, such as coos or cries. For example, a mother might playfully challenge her baby: “Where is it? Come on, come on, come on. You haven’t got any. I don’t believe you.”
* Development of Interaction: Around 5 weeks, the interaction becomes more emotional as babies start to smile. Mothers adjust their speech in response to their baby’s sounds, using softer voices when the baby coos.
* Increasing Engagement: As babies show more interest in their surroundings, mothers begin to speak more loudly to capture their attention. They also use exaggerated intonation and often repeat phrases to reinforce learning.
* Active Participation: After 6 months, as babies explore and move purposefully, mothers provide more detailed comments about their actions and the environment.
* Attention and Observation: Between 8 and 10 months, babies start trying to engage others by pointing and follow conversations, looking back and forth between speakers.
By the time babies start to speak their first words, they have learned a lot about how conversations work and how to engage with others through observation and practice.
First language - second language - foreign language
First language – the language first acquired as a child
(mother tongue or native language)
Second language – a non-native language, esp. one that
has an official role in a country or an institution
Foreign language – a non-native language, esp. One that
has no official status in a country
First language vs second language acquisition?
First language acquisition: Children’s acquisition of their native language; Primarily a subconscious process; Does not require explicit instructions or
education; Learners reach native fluency
Second language acquisition: Learning a language after acquiring one’s mother tongue; Primarily an active and conscious process; Requires explicit instructions or education; Often difficult to reach native-like fluency
