Scientific Revolution And Enlightenment

Question 1

Renaissance magic

Answer 1

Origins of scientific revolution, believed that world was living embodiment of divinity, humans had spark of divinity, could use magic (especially mathematical magic) to understand and dominate world of nature or employ powers of nature for beneficial purposes
Many famous people from the times had an interest in hermetic magic

Question 2

Geocentric conception

Answer 2

Universe seen as series of concentric spheres with a fixed or motionless earth at its center. Earth composed of material substances of earth, air, fire, and water, imperfect and constantly changing. Spheres that surrounded earth transparent, moved in circular orbits around earth, pure orbs of light. Beyond tenth sphere was location of God and saved souls, humans power over earth but real purpose to achieve salvation.

Question 3

Copernicus

Answer 3

1473-1543, wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, developed heliocentric conception, Protestant reformers attack him for ideas, Catholic Church stay silent for a while until Galileo

Question 4

Heliocentric conception

Answer 4

Copernicus made it, universe has eight spheres with sun at center, motionless. Planets revolve around sun, moon revolve around earth. Earth rotate daily, rotate around sun yearly. But didn’t reject circular orbits. Serious backlash from Lutherans

Question 5

Brahe

Answer 5

Lived on island, Danish, detailed observations of positions and movements of stars and planets, rejected Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system, but no quite accept Copernicus, assistant was Kepler

Question 6

Kepler

Answer 6

Interest in magic, theory that universe constructed on basis of geometric figures, harmony of human soul mirrored in numerical relationships existing between the planets. Three laws of planetary motion, eliminated the idea of uniform circular motion as well as the idea of crystalline spheres revolving in circular orbits, disproved Ptolemaic system

Question 7

Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion

Answer 7

First law reject Copernicus by showing orbits of planets around sun not circular but elliptical, sun at focus of ellipse rather than center
Second law demonstrate that speed of a planet is greater when it is closer to the sun and decreases as its distance from the sun increases
Third law establish that square of planet’s period of revolution is proportional to the cube of its average distance from the sun (aka planets with larger orbits revolve at a slower average velocity than those with smaller orbits)

Question 8

Galileo

Answer 8

1564-1642, first European to make systematic observations of the heavens by telescope, saw mountains on moon, moons around Jupiter, phases of Venus, sunspots. Demolished idea that universe made of perfect unchanging substance. Published The Starry Messenger in 1610. Catholic Church hated him, told him not to preach his findings, Galileo no listen to them, 1632 publish dialogue on the two chief world systems, written in Italian, house arrest.

Question 9

Galileo’s contributions to motion

Answer 9

Demonstrated that if a uniform force applied to an object it would move at an accelerated speed rather than a constant speed
Discovered inertia when he argued that a body in motion continues in motion forever unless deflected by an external force, state of uniform motion as natural as a state of rest

Question 10

Newton

Answer 10

English, considered greatest genius of scientific revolution, invented calculus (mathematical way of calculating rates of change), wrote Principia, interested in occult world, did universal law of gravitation. Law proved mathematically that one law could explain all motion in the universe, secrets of natural world could be known by human investigations, world seen in mechanistic terms, natural laws, universe machine, world-machine, accepted in England but took longer to be accepted elsewhere

Question 11

Newton’s work on the universal law of gravitation

Answer 11

Three laws of motion: every object continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless deflected by a force, rate of change of motion of object proportional to force acting on it, and every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Demonstrated that these laws govern planets too. Universal law of gravitation said that every object in the universe was attracted to every other object in the universe with a force (gravity) that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distances between them.

Question 12

Harvey

Answer 12

1578-1657, 1628 wrote On the Motion of the Heart and Blood, based on observations and experiments, demolished Galen’s ideas, demonstrated that the heart and not the liver was beginning point of circulation of blood in body, same blood flows in both veins and arteries, blood makes complete circuit as it passes thr go the body. Laid foundation for modern physiology.

Question 13

Medicine

Answer 13

Previous ideas by Galen, relied on animal dissection, said two separate blood systems, bright red blood in arteries, dark red blood in veins. Blood, yellow bile, phlegm, black bile, can find out about disease from ruin bc disease imbalance of bodily humors, Irvine chief tool, purging and bleeding, herbal medicines

Question 14

Chemistry

Answer 14

Boyle, Boyle’s law, volume and pressure of gas related, Lavoisier invent way to name elements, fundamental rules of chemical combination, Marie-Anne was wife, important too

Question 15

Women in science

Answer 15

Margaret cavendish, participate in critical science debates, think humans no power over nature, aristocrat
Maria Merian, important entomologist, observe insects and plants, 1699 went to Surinam, wrote books, did illustrations to show reproductive and developmental cycles of surinam’s insect life
Maria Winkelmann, most famous female astronomer in Germany, married Germany’s foremost astronomer
All women in science faced obstacles bc women, not allowed into science societies

Question 16

Querelles des femmes

Answer 16

Centuries long debate on the nature and value of women, male opinions not favorable, think women weak and biologically different from (inferior to) men, women think equal, should have equal opportunities/rights, not biologically different
Scientific revolution reaffirmed traditional ideas about women, males used new science to spread view that women inferior by nature

Question 17

Descartes

Answer 17

Discourse on Method 1637, I think therefore I am, emphasis on mind, only accept things his reason said were true, separation of mind and matter, Cartesian dualism, father of modern rationalism

Question 18

Cartesian dualism

Answer 18

Made by Descartes, absolute duality between mind and body, separation of mind and matter, using mind (human reason), the path to certain knowledge, and its best instrument, math, humans can understand the material world because it is pure mechanism, a machine governed by its own physical laws. Allowed scientists to vi matter as dead or inert, totally separate from them, could be investigated independently by reason. Changed how westerners viewed themselves

Question 19

Rationalism

Answer 19

Founded by Descartes, belief that humans can understand the world (itself a mechanical system) by the same rational principles inherent in mathematical thinking. Cartesian dualism part of it, split between mind and body.

Question 20

Bacon

Answer 20

English, wrote The Great Instauration, believed humans had proceeded incorrectly in trying to know natural world, new correct scientific method built on inductive principles, proceed from particular to general—from careful experiments/observations, correct generalizations could be developed. Concern for practical results rather than pure science.

Question 21

Descartes in relation to scientific method

Answer 21

Emphasize dedication and mathematical logic. Discourse on Method, each step in argument should be like a math proof. Start with self-evident truths and deduce more complex conclusions. Newton synthesized them into one scientific method by uniting bacon’s empiricism with Descartes’ rationalism. New scientific method began with systematic observations and experiments used to arrive at general concepts. New deductions derived from these general concepts, could then be tested and verified by precise experiments. Answered how but not why.

Question 22

Spinoza

Answer 22

Excommunicated by Jewish, thought God was the universe not simply made it, all that is is in God, and nothing can be apart from God. Philosophy of pantheism (or monism). Ethics Demonstrated in the Geometrical Manner, humans are as much a part of God or nature of the universal order as other natural objects. Everything has a rational explanation, humans capable of finding it. In using reason, people can find true happiness. Real freedom comes when understand order and necessity of nature and achieve detachment from passing interests.

Question 23

Pascal

Answer 23

French, want keep science and religion united, Pensées, say humans frail creatures, nature involved thinking, Christianity not contrary to religion, Christianity recognize that humans are both great (God made them) and vulnerable (fallen). God is reasonable bet, better to assume he exists than doesn’t exist. World of nature could never reveal God. Faith final step after reason

Question 24

Skepticism

Answer 24

Growing skepticism towards religion at the end of the seventeenth century due to the enlightenment and the scientific revolution, fontenelle helped contribute to it

Question 25

Cultural relativism

Answer 25

Travel literature caused it, basically that Europeans began to evaluate their civilization relative to others, practices that had seemed to be grounded in reason now appeared to be merely matters of custom. Realization that there were highly developed civilizations with different customs in other parts of the world ex China. Accompanied by religious skepticism.

Question 26

Philosophes

Answer 26

The intellectuals of the enlightenment, literary people, social reformers, role of philosophy to change world not just to discuss it, reason was scientific method, rational cirri ticks applied to everything, including religion and politics. Called for freedom of expression

Question 27

Cosmopolitan

Answer 27

Means familiar and at ease in many different cultures and languages, philosopher movement cosmopolitan, as was the enlightenment on the whole

Question 28

Montesquieu

Answer 28

1721 the Persian Letters, critiqued French institutions such as the Catholic Church and the French monarchy. 1748 The Spirit of the Laws, comparative study of governments, apply scientific method to social and political arena. Republics for small states (citizen involvement), monarchies for medium sized states (ruling class adhere to law), despotism for large states (fear to inspire obedience). Did natural laws and separation of powers

Question 29

Natural laws

Answer 29

Govern social relationships of human beings

Question 30

Separation of powers

Answer 30

Montesquieu’s idea, believed in importance of checks and balances created by means of separation of powers, separate legislative, executive, and judicial powers gave greatest freedom and security for a state, wanted nobility to play role in French government

Question 31

Voltaire

Answer 31

Greatest figure of enlightenment, crush the infamous thing, Letters on the English, 1733, admire freedom of press, political freedom, religious toleration. Criticize absolute monarchy. Criticize traditional religion and support religious toleration. Calas affair, supported religious tolerance, treatise on toleration 1763, all men brothers under God, deism, God created universe but no longer plays an active role, own natural laws

Question 32

Diderot

Answer 32

Condemned Christianity as fanatic and unreasonable, materialistic conception of life, wrote Encyclopedia, attacked religious superstition, advocated toleration, lead to better society, spread enlightenment ideas

Question 33

Adam smith

Answer 33

Founder of modern discipline of economics, Wealth of Nations 1776, laissez-faire government, attacked mercantilism. Condemned tariffs, said trade makes better, free trade fundamental, labor theory of value, labor constituted true wealth of a nation, state should not interfere in economic matters. Economic liberalism, emphasize economic liberty of individual

Question 34

Physiocrats

Answer 34

Founder of modern economics, leader quesnay, land source of wealth, wealth could only be increased by agriculture, reject mercantilism. Natural forces of supply and demand, individuals must be able to pursue own economic self interest, government no intervene in economics. Laissez faire government.

Question 35

Laissez-faire

Answer 35

A government where the government does not interfere (in the economy, in this case) and let’s people do as they choose

Question 36

Economic liberalism

Answer 36

The economic liberty of the individual, goes along with laissez faire government

Question 37

Rousseau

Answer 37

Discourse on Origins of Inequality of Mankind, humans in primitive state of nature, happy, no laws, no judges, all equal. To preserve private property, people adopted laws and governors, chains, government necessary evil. 1762 the Social Contract, harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority, agreement on part of an entire society to be governed by its general will, majority rules. General will is community’s highest aspirations. True freedom is adherence to laws one has imposed upon oneself. 1762 Émile, want education to foster children’s natural instincts, emphasis on heart and mind, very sexist and misogynistic.

Question 38

Romanticism

Answer 38

Dominated Europe at the beginning of the nineteenth century, intellectual movement, emphasis on heart and sentiment

Question 39

Feminism

Answer 39

Mary Wollstonecraft founder of European feminism, basically equality of the sexes, advocates rights for women bc not yet equal to men

Question 40

Salons

Answer 40

Came into being in the seventeenth century, helped to spread the ideas of the enlightenment to the literate elite of European society, wealthy (often women) held them, people just discussed ideas, very intellectual.

Question 41

Rococo

Answer 41

By 1730s new style had arisen, emphasized grace and gentle action, rejected strict geometrical patterns, fondness for curves, wandering lines, natural objects, gold, very secular, lightness and charm, pursuit of pleasure, happiness, and love. Watteau main artist, baroque-rococo too, Neumann another great artist, church and schönborn

Question 42

Neoclassicism

Answer 42

Maintained strong appeal, in late eighteenth century emerged in France as established movement, want recapture dignity and simplicity of classical style of Ancient Greece and Rome. David, oath of the horatii, moral seriousness and emphasis on honor and patriotism.

Question 43

Bach

Answer 43

German, baroque musical style, one of greatest composers of all time, music means of worshipping God.

Question 44

Handel

Answer 44

Germany, wrote music for large audiences, unusual sounding pieces, mostly secular but best known for religious music.

Question 45

Haydn

Answer 45

Lots of symphonies, wrote music dedicated to common people, Hungary

Question 46

Mozart

Answer 46

Child prodigy, wrote music, Austria, ease of melody, grace, precision, and emotion, best ever.

Question 47

High culture

Answer 47

Literary and artistic world of the educated and wealthy ruling classes, learned world in European culture, Latin international language, expansion of reading and publishing, elitist schools (gymnasiums, collèges, etc.), reinforced social hierarchy

Question 48

Popular culture

Answer 48

The written and unwritten lore of the masses, most of which is passed down orally. Magazines and newspapers, for all different sorts, education reinforced social hierarchy, taverns and alcohol, festivals, not completely oral, Protestant states more growth in literacy because more emphasis on reading the bible

Question 49

Beccaria

Answer 49

Made most notable effort to create new approach to justice, On Crimes and Punishments 1764, punishments should be deterrents not exercises in brutality, opposed to capital punishment, doesn’t stop people from committing crimes, prison better choice, set example of barbarism

Question 50

Pogroms

Answer 50

Jews restricted in movements, forbidden to own land or hold many jobs, forced to pay burdensome special taxes, subject to periodic outbursts of popular wrath, Jewish communities looted and massacred, made being a Jew hard

Question 51

Pietism

Answer 51

In Germany, response to desire for deeper personal devotion to God, begun in seventeenth century, spread by Zinzendorf, true religious experience consisted of mystical dimensions—the personal experience of God—in one’s life, opposed to rationalistic approach of orthodox Lutheran clergy

Question 52

John Wesley

Answer 52

Ordained Anglican minister, became missionary to English people to bring salvation to them, Anglican Church criticized him, to him, all could be saved by experiencing God and opening the doors to his grace, preached to masses in open fields, especially to lower classes, charismatic, provoked charged responses, Methodist societies, faith and good works