scientific processes Flashcards
experimental method
1 of the major influences of this approach is the therapy that has developed. Carl Rogers has developed his client-centered therapy based on it. If the client feels like they can say what they want, then they can be honest and this honesty is important in realizing physical barriers to becoming congruent.
operationalisation
Clearly defining variables into measurable factors
lab experiments
Conducted in a controlled environment allowing the establishment of causality
field experiments
Conducted in naturalistic environments where researchers manipulate IV
natural experiment
Independent variable differs naturally
quasi experiments
Unable to freely manipulate the IV or randomly allocate variables
natural/quasi experiments AO3
High ecological validity No demand characteristics Less control Replication Ethics Sample bias
lab experiment AO3
High degree of control Replication Cause and effect Isolation of variables Experimenter bias Problems operationalising DV and IV Low external validity Demand characteristics
questionnaires
Record answers to a pre-set list of questions
Closed questions- yes/no
Open questions- answer in own words
Structured- interviewer asks a particular set of predefined questions.
Unstructured- guide used by an interviewer
constructing questionnaires
Aims- helps question writing
Length- short and to the point
Previous- use previous experiments that were successful
question formation- concise and unambiguous
Pilot study- provide detailed feedback
Measurement scale
questionnaires AO3
Allows predictions Allows quantification pf relationships No manipulation Quantification problems Cause and effect Extraneous relationships Only works for linear relationships
case studies
In-depth, detailed investigations of 1 individual or a small group. Usually include biographical details, behavioural information and experiences of interest
Allow researchers to examine individuals in great depth
case studies AO3
Rich detail The only possible method to use Useful for theory contradiction No representative Researcher bias Reliance on memory
observation techniques
Observations involve watching and recording behaviour
Participant observation- involves observers becoming actively involved in the situation being studied to gain a more ‘hands-on perspective
Non-participant observation- involves researchers not become actively involved in the behaviour being studied
Overt observation- where participant are aware they are being observed
Covert observation- where participants are unaware they are being observed
correlational analysis
Experiments looks for a difference between 2 conditions of an IV, while correlational studies involve measuring the strength and direction of relationships between co-variables.
Positive correlation- occurs when 1 co-variable increases as another increases
Negative correlation- occurs when 1 co-variables increases as the other decreases
sampling procedure
Event sampling- counting the number of times a behaviour occurs in target individuals(s).
Time sampling- counting behaviour in a set time frame
inter-observer reliability
Occurs when independent observers code behaviour in the same way and lessens the chance of observer bias., where an observer sees and records behaviour in a subjective way.
Needs to be established before an observation begins and is easier to achieve if behavioural categories are clearly defined and do not overlap with each other
observation design
There are several ways in which data can be gathered in naturalistic observations, including visual recordings like videos and photographs.
Behavioural categories- observers agree on a grid or coding sheet on which to record the behaviour being studied. Should reflect what is being studied.
observation technique AO3
High external validity Practical method Few demand characteristics Cause and effect Observer bias Replication Ethics Practical problems
demand characteristics
Features of a piece of research which allows the participants to work out its aim and/or hypothesis
investigator effect
Research effect where researcher features influence participants results
aims
Is a precise statement of why a study is taking place/what is being studied.
Should include what is being studied and what the study is trying to achieve
hypothesis
Is a precise testable prediction of what is expected to happen.
Experimental/alternative hypothesis- predicts that differences in the DV will be beyond the boundaries of chance. Differences beyond the boundaries of chance are significant differences and can be incorporated into a hypothesis
Null hypothesis- predicts the IV will not affect the DV. Any differences will be due to chance factors no the manipulation of the IV
Directional (one-tailed) hypothesis- predicts the direction of the results.
Non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis- predicts there will be a difference but doesn’t state what the difference will be.
random sampling
Is where each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected.
A way to achieve this is by putting names in a hat
Unbiased selection
random sampling AO3
Unbiased selection
Generalisation
Impractical
Not representative
systematic sampling
Involves taking every nth person from a list to create a sample.
Involves calculating the size of a population and the assessing the size of the sample in relation to it.
systematic sampling AO3
Unbiased selection
Generalisation
Periodic traits
Not representative
stratified sampling
small-scale reproduction of a population
Involves dividing a population into characteristics important for the research
stratified sampling AO3
Representative
Unbiased
Knowledge of population characteristics required
Time-consuming
volunteer sampling
Involves people volunteering to participate
Select themselves as participant, often by replying to adverts
volunteer sampling AO3
Ease of formation
Less chance of ‘screw you’ phenomenon
Unrepresentative
Demand characteristics
opportunity sampling
Involves selecting participants who are available and willing to take part.
Asking people in the street who are passing
opportunity sampling AO3
Ease of formation
Natural experiments
Unrepresentative
Self- selection
independent group design
Uses different participants in each of the conditions, so each participant only does 1 condition
independent group design AO3
No order effects (+) Demand characteristic (+) Time saved (+) More participants needed (-) Group difference (-)
repeated measure design
Each participant is tested in all conditions of an experiment
repeated measure design AO3
Demand characteristic (-) Group difference (+) More data/fewer participants (+) Order effects (-) Takes more time (-)
matched pair design
Participants are used in every condition. Are matched on characteristics important for a study
matched pair design AO3
Demand characteristic (+) Group difference (+) No order effects (+) More participants (-) Takes more time (-) Matching is difficult (-)
extraneous variables
Variables other than the IV that can affect the DV
confounding variables
Uncontrolled extraneous variables that negatively affect results
ethical issues- informed consent
Should give participants sufficient details of an investigation so they can make a considered choice.
ethical issues- deception
Withholding of information or misleading participants isn’t allowed if participants are likely to show object or show unease once debriefed. Means informed consent cannot be given
ethical issues- risk of harm
Investigator’s have a responsibility to protect participants from mental and physical harm. Must be no greater than in real-life
ethical issues- confidentiality
Data must not be disclosed unless agreed in advance. Numbers should be used instead of names.
ethical issues- right to withdraw
Should be aware they can leave an experiment at any point and can withdraw data
