SAQ Socio/Cultural Theories Flashcards
Explain one theory of the formation of stereotypes with reference to one study.
Illusory correlation theory:
The illusory correlation theory states that people may see a relationship between two variables even when there is none. This causes people to overestimate a link between the two variables. Examples of illusory correlation in everyday life include the belief that certain groups of individuals are more prone to violence, or that a certain lifestyle causes certain diseases.
This phenomenon can have serious implications for decision-making and lead to incorrect assumptions about cause and effect.
Explain one study of cultural (or social) groups.
A cultural dimension is a pattern of values and behaviours in a culture. The concept of cultural dimensions was developed by Hofstede as a way of discussing and comparing cultures. One cultural dimension is individualism-collectivism.
Individualistic cultures focus on uniqueness, individual achievement, freedom, and self-actualization. Collectivistic cultures focus on social harmony, interdependence, modesty, and group memberships. There are several studies that look at how cultural dimensions may affect the behaviour of members of that culture, but there are questions about the validity of the research.
In individualist societies, the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. In collectivist societies, from birth onwards people are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts, and grandparents), which provide them with support and protection. However, if an individual does not live up to the norms of the family or the larger social group, the result can sometimes be severe.
Berry
Explain one study of assimilation
Assimilation is the process of adopting the cultural and social norms of the dominant culture, often losing aspects of one’s own culture in the process. Often failure to assimilate may lead to marginalization. Psychologists argue that integration, rather than assimilation, is important for the mental health of immigrants, where they would become bicultural, being able to function in both the new culture and their original culture. Assimilation often leads to acculturative stress which can have a negative effect on mental health.
LUECK AND WILSON
Explain Social Identity Theory with reference to one study.
Psychologists argue that we all have several social selfs or identities which correspond to different groups. According to the theory we need to know who we are and what our values are in social contexts. Social identity theory is based on the cognitive process of social categorization: the process of classifying people into groups based on similar characteristics. This categorization gives rise to in-groups (us) and out-groups (them).
Explain Social Cognitive Theory with reference to one study.
Developed by Albert Bandura, explains how humans learn behaviour by observation and being reinforced by society. Assumes that humans learn behaviour through observational learning, in other words, people can learn by watching models and imitating their behaviour. We do not need positive reinforcement to continue the behaviour. The fact that the model was rewarded or punished for a behaviour, is enough for us. Social cognitive learning theory argues that learning is most likely to occur if the observer has high self-efficacy.
Self–efficacy is one’s belief in one’s ability to successfully accomplish a task. Those who have low levels of self-efficacy will fear failure and are less likely to attempt imitating the behaviour of the model
Humans learn by observation and imitation
1. Attention (In order for the learning to happen, attention must be paid to the model; this can be affected by the authority, attractiveness, or desirability of the model’s behavior or the outcome of said behavior.)
2. Motivation (The learner must have the motivation to repeat the behavior based on the outcome expectancy. > Several factors affect the learner’s motivation to replicate the behavior, such as the likeability of the model, identification with the model, and consistency of the behavior.)
3. Potential (Following the observation, the learner must be able to retain and remember the behavior.)
Explain one study of the effects of stereotyping on behavior.
Our social world is very complex and thus presents us with too much information. Since our capacity to process information is limited, our social world needs to be simplified. One way to avoid this information overload is through social categorisation. The information is used in social categorisation is stereotypes. A “stereotype” is a mental representation and a form of social categorization made about specific individuals or a group and its members. Once a set of characteristics is used to describe a group of people, those characteristics are often attributed to all members of the group, thus affecting the behaviour of the people or individual who hold the stereotype, and those who are labelled by a stereotype. Gender, race, political stance, and personality contribute to the stereotypes we place on others, but they are generally based on race and gender. This generalization may either be positive or negative, based on certain group membership or physical attributes, however most stereotypes of today are negative, exaggerating the quality and cognitively-associating such trait to all individuals that are part of the group leading to discrimination and prejudice, thus increasing self-esteem about themselves and their in-group. Stereotype threat occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically or a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm a stereotype. Stereotype threat turns on spotlight anxiety, which causes emotional distress and pressure that may undermine performance and cause reduced effort. This “self-handicapping” can offer psychological protection by providing an explanation for failure even while undermining performance.
Explain one ethical consideration in one study of the individual and the group.
Zimbardo undue stress or harm
Explain the use of one research method in one study of the individual and the group.
True laboratory experiment, as it involved manipulation of the independent variable, random allocation of participants, and was conducted in a controlled lab setting.
Bandura
Explain one cultural dimension with reference to one study.
A cultural dimension is a pattern of values and behaviours in a culture. The concept of cultural dimensions was developed by Hofstede as a way of discussing and comparing cultures. One cultural dimension is individualism-collectivism.
Individualistic cultures focus on uniqueness, individual achievement, freedom, and self-actualization. Collectivistic cultures focus on social harmony, interdependence, modesty, and group memberships. There are several studies that look at how cultural dimensions may affect the behavior of members of that culture, but there are questions about the validity of the research.
In individualist societies, the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. In collectivist societies, from birth onwards people are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts, and grandparents), which provide them with support and protection. However, if an individual does not live up to the norms of the family or the larger social group, the result can sometimes be severe.
Explain one study of the enculturation of one behavior.
Enculturation is the process of adopting or internalizing the behaviors and values of one’s culture - a process also known as socialization. Enculturation results in the development of cultural schema. One of the key behaviors that is enculturated is gender roles. A gender role, also known as a sex role, is a social role encompassing a range of behaviors and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their biological or perceived sex. There are several theories of how enculturation takes place. One theory is that we learn through direct tuition. This is supported by a naturalistic observation carried out by Fagot. Another explanation is that Social Cognitive theory - or observational learning - plays a key role, as shown in a study done by Smith and Lloyd. It is most likely, however, to be a combination of factors that leads to enculturation.
fagot
Explain one study of acculturation.
Acculturation is the process of learning and adopting the behaviours of another culture. There are several groups that do this – immigrants, refugees, exchange students, and people working for international companies. But not everyone does it to the same extent.
Berry proposed a model that was based on two key factors. First, one’s feelings about the need to preserve their own culture; Second, one’s relationship with the new culture.
He proposed four strategies for acculturation. Assimilation is when one “abandons” one’s own culture and completely adopts the values and behaviours of the new culture. Integration is when one is comfortable in both cultures. Separation is when one maintains their own culture and does not adopt the values/behaviours of the new culture. And finally, marginalization is when one does not identify with their own culture and yet is not accepted or does not identify with the new culture.
Acculturative Stress refers to the anxiety that one may feel when attempting to assimilate into a new culture.
Miranda and Methany
Explain one ethical consideration in the study of cultural origins of behavior and cognition, with reference to one study.
Ethics are moral principles and roles of conduct that guide an individual or groups behaviour and must be considered to ensure participants are not harmed.
Berry: the study was mostly ethical as there was informed consent, they were partially deceived, their identities remained confidential, they were debriefed, they could withdraw, and they were protected from harm
Explain the use of one research method in one study of cultural influences on behavior and cognition.
Semi structured Interviews - Lueck and Wilson
A semi-structured interview is a flexible type of interview where the researcher prepares a set of guiding questions or themes in advance, but can also ask follow-up questions based on the participant’s answers. It’s a mix of structured (fixed questions) and unstructured (open, free conversation) formats.
Explain one example of a potential influence of culture on behavior or cognition
Berry conducted a study exploring how culture can affect behavior, specifically, conformity.
Cultural norms: are a set of rules that a specific group uses for stating what is seen as appropriate behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes which are usually passed through gatekeepers.
A cultural dimension is individualism vs collectivism, meaning the degree to which people are integrated into groups.
Members of individualistic cultures have a strong personal identity based on an independent self
collectivist cultures, as strong personal identity based on an interdependent self
this dimension affects one’s level of conformity, the tendency to adjust one’s thoughts, feelings or behaviors to fit with an individual or group.
Explain one study of social groups
SIT
