ERQ Sociocultural

Question 1

Cultural dimension definition + explanation

Answer 1

A cultural dimension is a pattern of values and behaviours in a culture. The concept of cultural dimensions was developed by Hofstede as a way of discussing and comparing cultures. One cultural dimension is individualism-collectivism. Hofstede’s classic research involved asking employees of the multinational company IBM to fill in surveys about morale in the workplace. He then carried out a factor analysis on the questionnaires, focusing on the key differences submitted by employees in different countries. His research is an example of an etic approach and it looked at the 40 most represented countries in the surveys.

Question 2

Berry aim

Answer 2

Berry (1967) studied the role of the individualism-collectivism dimension on one’s likelihood to conform.

Question 3

Berry procedure

Answer 3

The sample was made up of three different cultures.
Temne from Sierra Leone, a society that is based on rice farming.
Inuit people from Baffin Island in Canada, which survive by hunting and fishing.
Scots - a group that scores as “undefined” on the I-C scale.
Each group was made up of people who had never had a Western education and maintained the traditional way of life - and people who were “in transition” - either having a Western education or Western employment. Each individual was brought into a room by him or herself. For the test, they were given a set of nine lines and they were asked to match the line below that most closely matched the line on the top. These were the two practice tests to make sure that the directions were understood. The directions were given in their own language by a native interpreter using a pre-translated set of instructions and questions. On the third trial, the researcher pointed to an incorrect line and told the participant that this is what most people from their culture chose on this trial.

Question 4

Berry findings

Answer 4

The Temne, which is a collectivistic culture, had a much higher rate of conformity when told what other Temne believed, even though it was incorrect. The Inuits, on the other hand, had an even lower rate of conformity than the Scots. There was no significant difference within groups - that means, it made no difference whether the participants were living the traditional life or were highly exposed to Western culture.

Question 5

Berry evaluation

Answer 5

strengths:
- takes away researcher bias since instructions were given through back to back translation in participants own language
- highly replicable

limitations:
- low ecological validity (artificial setting and lab setting)
- dated (1967), raising questions of whether the growing influence of media and other globalisation influences could affect this concept

Question 5

Kulkoffsky et al. aim

Answer 5

I-C can also influence cognition, such as memory. Kulkoffsky carried out a study to see if there were differences in the level of flashbulb memories in individualistic and collectivistic cultures.

Question 5

cultural dimension, Individualism v Collectivism definition explination

Answer 5

A cultural dimension is a pattern of values and behaviours in a culture. The concept of cultural dimensions was developed by Hofstede as a way of discussing and comparing cultures. One cultural dimension is individualism-collectivism.

Individualistic cultures focus on uniqueness, individual achievement, freedom, and self-actualization. Collectivistic cultures focus on social harmony, interdependence, modesty, and group memberships. There are several studies that look at how cultural dimensions may affect the behavior of members of that culture, but there are questions about the validity of the research.

In individualist societies, the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. In collectivist societies, from birth onwards people are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts, and grandparents), which provide them with support and protection. However, if an individual does not live up to the norms of the family or the larger social group, the result can sometimes be severe.

Question 5

Kulkoffsky et al. procedure

Answer 5

The sample was made up of about 250 participants from five different cultures. First, the participants were asked to recall memories of big news events in their lifetime. They were then given a questionnaire that asked them questions about what they were doing on the day of that event. They were also asked how important the event was to them personally and how important it was to their country. The survey was conducted in their native languages.

Question 5

Kulkoffsky et al. findings

Answer 5

The results showed that Chinese participants (collectivistic) had fewer flashbulb memories than Americans (individualistic). In collectivistic cultures, it is not culturally appropriate to focus on the individual’s own experiences and emotions. This may mean that there would be less rehearsal of the memory of the event compared with participants from other cultures - and so fewer FBMs. However, it was found that if the event was of national importance, there was no significant difference in the level of FBMs

Question 5

Kulkoffsky et al. evaluation

Answer 5

A representative of the culture administered the test and the questionnaires were given in the native languages of the participants. This avoids interviewer effects. It also meant that since they were responding in their native language - and the language in which these memories were mostly created - the participants were more likely to recall these memories.
The study used back-translation to make sure that the translation of the questionnaires was not a confounding variable. This increases the credibility of the study.
There is the danger of the ecological fallacy - just because the participants come from the culture being studied, this does not mean that they necessarily share the traits of the culture’s predominant dimensions - that is, just because I am American does not mean that I process flashbulb memories like other Americans.
It is an etic approach to researching cultural differences. It is possible that cultural factors affected how information was self-reported. It cannot be verified in this study whether those personal memories actually exist but were not reported. No temporal validity: done in 2011

Question 6

individualism v collectivism evaluation

Answer 6

One does have to be careful, however, with applying the idea of dimensions too casually. Hofstede warns against the ecological fallacy—that is, when one looks at two different cultures, it should not be assumed that two members from two different cultures must be different from one another, or that a single member of a culture will always demonstrate the dimensions which are the norm of that culture. These concepts simply give psychologists a way to generalize about cultures in order to better discuss the role that culture plays in behavior. However, we have to be careful of stereotyping, recognizing that these expectations of the behavior of a member of a different culture open up the possibility of stereotype threat.

Hofstede (2001) has carried out extensive research since his original study. With scores obtained over a span of 30 years, he claims that the results have stayed consistent. However, there are some things to keep in mind when evaluating the theory of cultural dimensions. First, remember that Hofstede was studying work environments. The attitudes of people toward the work environment may not transfer to all areas of their daily lives. In addition, his research was done by factor analysis. After receiving the questionnaires, the researcher and his team went through the responses and looked for correlations between attitudes and national identity. Researcher bias can play a significant role in which trends are seen as significant. There is a danger that researchers see what confirms their own biases. However, Hofstede worked as a team and was able to establish a good level of reliability - that is, there was no significant difference in the findings among the different members of his team. Finally, the research is correlational in nature. It is not possible to argue that culture causes these behaviors. That being said, using dimensions is a good way to discuss cultural differences and to challenge us in our own ethnocentrism.

Question 7

effects of culture on behvaiour/cognition evaluation

Answer 7

• Cultural Definitions and Homogeneity: Studies often categorize cultures in broad terms (e.g., Western vs. Non-Western), which might overlook the vast diversity within these groups. This generalization can lead to oversimplified conclusions about spatial cognition and memory. A critical examination should question whether these broad categories adequately represent the cultural factors influencing spatial memory.
• Technological Influence: Modern technology, especially GPS and digital mapping tools, has a profound impact on spatial navigation and memory. This technological aspect raises questions about the evolving nature of spatial skills across cultures, potentially diminishing traditional differences observed in past research. Evaluating how technology intersects with cultural practices can provide a nuanced perspective on the theory.
• Longitudinal Changes and Generational Differences: Cultural practices and environments are not static; they evolve over time. Longitudinal studies examining changes in spatial memory and navigation skills within cultures over generations are sparse. Acknowledging this gap can highlight the need for research that considers temporal changes within cultures, offering a dynamic view of culture’s impact on cognition.

Question 8

Enculturation definition + explanation

Answer 8

Enculturation is the process of adopting or internalizing the behaviors and values of ones culture - a process also known as socialization.
Results in the development of cultural schema
enculturation is universal, but how it comes about isn’t
There are many ways in which people can become enculturated, including through education, parents, peers and media. If a culture values certain characteristic of obedience and compliance, they are more likely to have higher rates of conformity when compared to those that value independence. Therefore, enculturation may affect behavior of conformity.

Question 9

enculturation with regard to one behavior Evaluation

Answer 9

• approach cannot explain the wide variations in how children conform to their own cultural norms
• TOO many variables that may play a role in enculturation that are not fully considered
• controlled studies lack ecological validity. Naturalistic studies lack internal validity.
• Biological factors are not addressed.
• culture is dynamic: enculturation research does not explain how and why culture changes over time.
• there is the problem of the operationalization of culture as a variable in a globalized and Internet-connected world.

Question 10

acculturation definition + explanation

Answer 10

the process of learning and adopting the behaviors of another culture. There are several groups that do this – immigrants, refugees, exchange students, and people working for international companies. But not everyone does it to the same extent. Psychologists have found that the way that one acculturates can have an effect on their mental and physical health.

Question 11

Lueck and Wilson aim

Answer 11

investigated the variables that may predict acculturative stress in a sample of about 3000 Asian Americans.

Question 12

Lueck and Wilson procedure

Answer 12

about 2000 Asian Americans. about half of the participants were first-generation immigrants who were 18 years and older when they came to the US. The rest of the sample was born in the US to first-generation immigrant parents. The sample consisted of several different Asian cultures, including Chinese, Filipino, and Vietnamese.

The researchers carried out semi-structured interviews. The interviews measured the participants’ level of acculturative stress. They also measured the impact of language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion, and socioeconomic status on acculturative stress.The interviewers had cultural and linguistic backgrounds similar to those of the sample population. Interviews were conducted either over the Internet or face-to-face.

Question 13

Lueck and Wilson results

Answer 13

70% of the sample were found to have acculturative stress.

higher stress:
- preference for speaking English
- Negative treatment by the dominant culture

lower stress:
- bilingual language preference
- Sharing similar values and beliefs as a family
- satisfied with their economic opportunities

Question 14

Luek and Wilson evaluation

Answer 14

strengths:
- large sample, which generates a considerable amount of data
- interviews were conducted by people who were familiar with both the respective cultures and the context of the investigation
- semi structured interviews gave interviewer opportunity to enable each participant to supply more detailed info where necessary

limitations:
- correlational results, with difficulties in identifying cause and effect despite nature of semi structured interviews
- not always easy to determine which stresses were non-acculturational in origin

Question 15

Miranda + Methany aim

Answer 15

to see which factors in the lives of Latino immigrants to the United States would decrease the level of acculturative stress

Question 16

Miranda + Methany procedure

Answer 16

A random sample of 197 members of two social services agencies completed a questionnaire as well as standardized tests to assess family cohesion, level of acculturation, acculturative stress, and coping strategies for stress.

Question 17

Miranda + Methany findings

Answer 17

The findings suggested that immigrants with effective coping strategies, good proficiency in English, and a strong family structure were less likely to experience acculturative stress. In addition, immigrants who had spent a longer time in the US were less like to demonstrate acculturative stress and show a higher level of acculturation.

Question 18

Miranda + Methany evaluation

Answer 18

• data was taken in a single point in time, which limits the understanding of how stress changes over time. Longitudinal studies may provide more insight
• may not provide all information bc they are scared of being found out (if illegal immigrants)/give biased answers or things they think others would want to her

Question 19

Acculturation with regard to behaviour/or cognition evaluation

Answer 19

Many of the constructs that are studied in acculturation research could be considered subjective and difficult to measure on a standardized scale - e.g. acculturative stress, family cohesion, and life satisfaction.
There is often a language problem in giving tests to immigrants. It is not only a question of whether they understand the vocabulary of the test but how they interpret the questions.
When measuring “acculturation,” psychologists make assumptions about what healthy - acculturation looks like.
There are many variables that may influence the experience of migrants in a new culture. These include the immigrants’ age at the time of migration, length of residency, education, sexual orientation, religion, socioeconomic class, and trauma experienced prior to arrival in the new culture. This makes it difficult to find representative samples that can be used to generate theory about the acculturation experience.
There are several ethical considerations in research on acculturation. It is important that in any research the participants are aware of their rights as participants. This includes the right to informed consent, anonymity, and to withdraw from the study.
In the study of immigrants, illegal immigrants are often absent from the research for fear of discovery and deportation.

Question 20

acculturation with regard to one behaviour/cognition definition+explanation

Answer 20

Acculturation is the process of learning and adopting the behaviors of another culture. There are several groups that do this – immigrants, refugees, exchange students, and people working for international companies. But not everyone does it to the same extent. Psychologists have found that the way that one acculturates can have an effect on their mental and physical health.
Acculturative Stress refers to the anxiety that one may feel when attempting to assimilate into a new culture.

Question 21

social cognitive theory definition/explanation

Answer 21

Developed by Albert Bandura, explains how humans learn behavior by observation and being reinforced by society. Assumes that humans learn behavior through observational learning in other words, people can learn by watching models and imitating their behavior. We do not need positive reinforcement to continue the behavior. The fact that the model was rewarded or punished for a behavior, is enough for us. Social cognitive learning theory argues that learning is most likely to occur if the observer has high self-efficacy.
Self–efficacy is one’s belief in one’s ability to successfully accomplish a task. Those who have low levels of self-efficacy will fear failure and are less likely to attempt imitating the behavior of the model. Social cognitive learning theory helps explain why behaviors may be passed down in a family or within a culture.
Humans learn by observation and imitation R.A.M.P
Retention
Attention
Motivation
Potential

Question 22

social cognitive theory evaluation

Answer 22

There are several strengths of the theory. First, there is empirical evidence to support it. The theory has been shown to have validity both in the lab (Bandura) and in natural environments (Joy and Charlton). The theory also can be applied to a large range of behaviors, not just aggression. It has been used in education as well as in therapy. Finally, the theory is complex and explains cultural differences in behavior. It also shows how we may learn without having to directly receive a reward or punishment. There are, however, limitations of the theory. First, the theory is only one perspective. It does not account for biological factors in aggression. How biology influences SCT could be a factor. Secondly, the studies of aggression have ethical concerns. Finally, the theory cannot explain all behavior as some children did not imitate the model in spite of meeting the criteria of the theory.

Question 23

bandura aim

Answer 23

to see if children were more imitate aggression modelled by an adult and whether they were more likely to imitate same sex models

Question 24

bandura procedure

Answer 24

children aged 3-6 were placed in groups matched in regards to levels of aggression. one group was exposed to physical or verbal aggression against a doll, the second group observed a non aggressive adult, and as a control the third group did not see a model.
after watching the models the children were placed in a room with toys that they were told were not for them to promote aggression. after that they were taken out and placed in a room with the doll and their behaviour was secretly observed by scientists.

Question 25

bandura findings

Answer 25

children who observed the aggressive models were significantly more aggressive both physically and verbally and showed clear signs of observational learning
bandura also observed that girls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression
when boys observed women physically abusing the doll, they were less likely to imitate the behaviour, showing that children were more likely to imitate the same-sex adult

Question 26

bandura evaluation

Answer 26

simple to replicate
- It has been replicated and shown that the results are generally accurate.
- all the variables such as gender and age, can be controlled
- a limitation is that all the participants were kindergartners from Stanford professors ->meaning that they most likely came from a wealthy background, so this experiment is not able to have any predictive validity across different classes.
- no way of knowing whether these aggressive behaviors were long-term, as the children were only looked at one point in their lives
- hard to pinpoint what exactly aggression is
- It can be argued that bashing a Bobo doll can or cannot be aggressive, and it depends on the child’s mindset when they hit the doll.

Question 27

charlton et al aim

Answer 27

to investigate the effects of television on childrens behaviour

Question 28

charlton et al procedure

Answer 28

This was a natural experiment using observational methods
- Charlton and his colleagues set up the experiment two years before the introduction of television, so that they could observe children’s behaviour both before and after they were exposed to it
- Children (aged three to eight years) were observed through cameras set up in the playgrounds of two primary schools on the island
- In 1994 (before the introduction of television), the researchers filmed 256 minutes of free play in the school playgrounds
- In 2000, behaviour was observed again, with 344 minutes of free play being recorded
- The researchers analysed the children’s aggressive behaviour and compared it to the amount of television that children were exposed to particularly in terms of the amount of violence they watched
- The researchers also conducted interviews with teachers, parents and some of the older children.

Question 29

charlton findings

Answer 29

Found no significant change in aggression levels following television exposure.

Question 30

charlton evaluation

Answer 30

Both studies were natural experiments. This means that they had high ecological validity - carried out under natural conditions. However, it also means that internal validity was low. There are several uncontrolled variables in these studies.
Levels of aggression were measured by the researchers by using a checklist. The researchers worked in teams - using researcher triangulation - to improve the reliability of the ratings. The comments given by parents and teachers were also used to confirm the level of aggression - in other words, they used data triangulation.
One of the problems of natural experiments is that they are difficult to replicate - making it difficult to establish the reliability of the findings. It also makes it difficult to generalize the findings.
Both studies used a pre-test/post-test design, allowing researchers to observe change over time. As the studies were poorly controlled, it is not possible to determine a cause-and-effect relationship.

Question 31

social identity theory definition/explanation

Answer 31

Psychologists argue that we all have several social selfs or identities which correspond to different groups. According to the theory we need to know who we are and what our values are in social contexts. Social identity theory is based on the cognitive process of social categorization: the process of classifying people into groups based on similar characteristics. This categorization gives rise to in-groups (us) and out-groups (them).

Question 32

social identity theory evaluation

Answer 32

SIT is supported by Tajfel’s “Minimal Group” studies which showed how boys will discriminate about outgroups even when social identity is based on something as irrelevant to them as modern art.
However, these studies are artificial because the boys had to assign points from books of matrices to strangers, which is not like real-life racism or sexism which normally involves treating actual people badly.
On the other hand, Tajfel would say if the boys were prepared to discriminate against anonymous boys on over pennies on the basis of differences in art, how much more likely they would be to discriminate when there are important things at stake.
Personality is a variable SIT doesn’t take into account. Adorno suggests that Authoritarian Personalities are much more likely to discriminate because their self-esteem is more strongly linked to their social identity.

Question 33

zimbardo aim

Answer 33

to see how one’s social identity may affect behavior

Question 34

zimbardo procedure

Answer 34

Stanford basement was converted to a mock prison. Prisoners were treated like every other criminal. Guards wore special sunglasses, to make eye contact with prisoners impossible. Prisoners were issued numbers, which they were addressed by instead of names. Guards were instructed to do whatever they thought was necessary to maintain law and order in the prison and to command the respect of the prisoners. Experiment lasted six days.

Question 35

zimbardo findings

Answer 35

Within hours of beginning the experiment some guards began to harass prisoners. The prisoners adopted prisoner-like behavior too. They talked about prison issues a great deal of the time. They started taking the prison rules very seriously. There was also a loss of self identity among the prisoners which showed when they signed off their letters to home with their number instead of their real names.

Question 36

zimbardo evaluation

Answer 36

There were ethical considerations involved in the Zimbardo prison experiment. Prisoners were denied the right to leave. There was physical and emotional harm. Participants were not properly debriefed and were taken from their homes without warning.
This means the study’s findings cannot be reasonably generalized to real life, such as prison settings. I.e, the study has low ecological validity.
The student “guards” lacked professional training, and the experiment’s duration was much shorter than real prison sentences. Furthermore, the participants, who were college students, didn’t reflect the diverse backgrounds typically found in actual prisons in terms of ethnicity, education, and socioeconomic status.

Question 37

tajfel aim

Answer 37

to see how one’s social identity may affect behavior

Question 38

tajfel procedure

Answer 38

A sample of 48 boys, ages 14 - 15 years old
asked to rate 12 paintings by abstract expressionist painters Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky. They were not aware of which artist had painted which painting during the test. The boys were then randomly allocated to one of two groups and told that they preferred either Klee or Kandinsky.

Each boy was then given the task to award points to two other boys, one from his same group and one from the other group. The only information that each boy was given was the code numbers and the name of the group of the two boys they were supposed to award. There were two systems of awarding points that were employed by the researchers.
Point allocation system 1: The point scores for each boy were linked so that the sum of the two scores was 15. If a participant chose 8, the other boy automatically got a score of 7 (15 - 8). This means that as the score for the participant increases, the score of the other boy decreases.
Point allocation system 2: In the second method of allocating points, Tajfel manipulated the system.
-> If a Klee member chose a high value for another Klee member, it would give a higher profit to the out-group.
-> If a Klee member chose a mid-range value for another Klee member, it would give the same points to the other group.
-> If a Klee member chose a low value for another Klee member, it would award only 1 point to the other team.

Question 39

tajfel findings

Answer 39

In the first system of point allocation, the boys generally awarded more points to the members of their in-group showing in-group favoritism
In the second system of point awarding, the boys were willing to give their own team fewer points to maximize the difference between their in-group and the out-group. This was a bit surprising since it meant that the boys left the study with fewer points than if they had all given each other the largest number of points possible.

One of the most obvious conclusions that we can draw from this experiment is the natural tendency of members of a group to favor their in-group. Despite the seemingly meaningless groupings created by the experimenters, the participants were able to identify with their respective groups and create a positive social identity by giving their in-group more points. Tajfel demonstrated that a “minimal group” is all that is necessary for individuals to exhibit discrimination against an out-group. This experiment is considered a classic in psychology because it demonstrates that intergroup conflict is not required for discrimination to occur. The study thus challenged previous beliefs that competition was necessary and sufficient to produce prejudice.

Question 40

tajfel evaluation

Answer 40

strengths:
- easily replicable, and replications have shown similar results
- supports social identity theory, even where in-groups and out-groups are formed randomly

weaknesses:
- difficulties in generalising because the study only used british schoolboys
- greater bias and discrimination may have been shown by winners being allowed to keep the money after winning activities

Question 41

Discuss (or Evaluate) one or more effects of stereotyping on behavior.

Answer 41

Our social world is very complex and thus presents us with too much information. Since our capacity to process information is limited, our social world needs to be simplified. One way to avoid this information overload is through social categorisation. The information is used in social categorisation is stereotypes. A “stereotype” is a mental representation and a form of social categorization made about specific individuals or a group and its members. Once a set of characteristics is used to describe a group of people, those characteristics are often attributed to all members of the group, thus affecting the behaviour of the people or individual who hold the stereotype, and those who are labelled by a stereotype. Gender, race, political stance, and personality contribute to the stereotypes we place on others, but they are generally based on race and gender. This generalization may either be positive or negative, based on certain group membership or physical attributes, however most stereotypes of today are negative, exaggerating the quality and cognitively-associating such trait to all individuals that are part of the group leading to discrimination and prejudice, thus increasing self-esteem about themselves and their in-group. Stereotype threat occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically or a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm a stereotype. Stereotype threat turns on spotlight anxiety, which causes emotional distress and pressure that may undermine performance and cause reduced effort. This “self-handicapping” can offer psychological protection by providing an explanation for failure even while undermining performance.

Question 42

steele & aaronson aim

Answer 42

see how stereotype threat affects test performance in African Americans.

Question 43

steele and aaronson procedure

Answer 43

The sample was made up of 76 male and female, black and white undergraduates from Stanford University. The participants were given a standardized test of verbal ability and were told either that it was a test to diagnose their intellectual ability or that it was a test of their problem-solving skills. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the conditions.

Question 44

steele and aaronson findings

Answer 44

There was no significant difference between male and female participants. However, African Americans did poorly when they believed that the test was a test of their intellectual ability, but did just as well as the white Americans when they believed that it was a test of their problem-solving skills.

Question 45

steele and aaronson evaluation

Answer 45

The sample was made up of Stanford University students, so it may not be representative and thus difficult to generalize the findings.
The study made use of an independent samples design. Verbal scores from participants’ SATs were collected prior to the study in order to make sure that they were all within the norm of verbal performance. In this way, participant variability was minimized. However, a matched-pairs design may have been a better approach.
Although there is a difference between the two average scores, it does not necessarily mean that the participants experienced stereotype threat. Their salience about their racial identity and their levels of stress during the exam were not measured in this first variation of the experiment. Later variations of the experiment showed, however, that this was most probably the case.

Question 46

stone aim

Answer 46

the study was carried out to find out if the way a sport is framed would impede the performance of members of different racial groups

Question 47

stone procedure

Answer 47

Participants were told that they were going to be tested on a golf-related task. The task was either described as reflecting “factors correlated with natural athletic ability” (high stereotype threat) or “factors correlated with general sports performance” (low stereotype threat).

Question 48

stone findings

Answer 48

Stone found that white athletes practiced significantly less in the high threat compared with the low threat condition. The control group, made up of African Americans, did not show any difference in the two conditions.

Question 49

stone evaluation

Answer 49

The use of an experimental design allows for control over variables, enhancing the internal validity of the study.
Random assignment to conditions helps control for confounding variables.
The task (golf-related performance) is a realistic and relatable activity for participants, increasing ecological validity.
clear operationalization of stereotype threat through the framing of the task as related to “natural athletic ability” or “general sports performance.”
Use of a control group (African American participants) to compare the effects of different types of stereotype threats.
The study primarily focuses on white and African American participants, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other racial or ethnic groups.
Potential cultural biases in the interpretation of “athletic ability” and “sports intelligence.”
While the task is realistic, the setting may not fully replicate real-world environments where stereotype threats are encountered.
Inducing stereotype threat could cause psychological stress or harm to participants.
Debriefing p

Question 50

Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the individual and the group.

Answer 50

zimbardo and asch

There are several ethical considerations that researchers must address when carrying out research. In the Sociocultural approach psychologists study groups of people. This leads to specific problems. Two ethical considerations are undue stress or harm and deception.
Protection from undue stress or harm is the most important of all ethical considerations. “Undue stress” refers to any stress that would be more than a participant would encounter in everyday life. Simple discomfort or embarrassment is not “undue stress or harm.” But several of the early studies in social psychology did cause great stress for the individual. In addition, the person must be able to leave the experiment in the same condition in which s/he arrived. In order to avoid this, psychologists must submit their research proposals to an ethics committee for approval. Even with this step, sometimes the study may result in unexpected levels of stress.

Question 51

Discuss (or Evaluate) the use of one or more research methods in the study of the role of culture on behavior and/or cognition.

Answer 51

Quasi experiment BERRY
A quasi-experiment does not have a random allocation of participants, so participant variability may play a role in the findings
quasi-experiments do not establish a cause-and-effect relationship because an IV is not manipulated.
real-life applicability
Ethical
less control

Question 52

Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the individual and the group. zimbardo

Answer 52

The prisoners demonstrated high levels of stress, even breaking down emotionally. This is a clear example of undue stress – that is, the level of stress is higher than they would experience on a day-to-day basis. In addition, the prisoners felt that they could not leave the experiment, which also would lead to higher levels of stress. Although the participants were debriefed and Zimbardo followed up with the participants with regard to their health after the study, there are still concerns about the long-term effects of the experience on the participants.
Deception means that the researcher either does not reveal the true aim of the study to the participants, or the participant is intentionally misinformed about the experiment. Deception is often used in psychology as a way to avoid demand characteristics by making sure that the participants do not know the goal of the study. In addition, the use of deception is sometimes necessary to study something that could not be studied otherwise – for example, if participants knew that a situation is staged or that confederates are not telling the truth, then the experiment would not make any sense. It would not test what it wanted to test and therefore lack validity.

Question 53

Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the individual and the group. asch

Answer 53

Ethics are not always black and white. In Zimbardo’s study, an ethics board approved the experiment. It is not always possible to predict what will happen in an experiment. In Asch’s study, there may have been some feelings of embarrassment, but there was no serious stress or harm caused to the participants. Another issue is whether there was an alternative way for Zimbardo or Asch to conduct their research that would have been more ethical. It is important for researchers to consider alternatives. Even though Zimbardo’s and Asch’s studies are not naturalistic, they are realistic and thus have ecological validity. Even though lines may not be important to people, being correct in a psychological study is. By creating experiments that are not realistic, there is the problem that we might not get valid results. This is why a cost-benefit analysis is important when considering ethics.

Question 54

Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the role of culture on behavior and/or cognition. berry

Answer 54

the study was mostly ethical as there was informed consent, they were partially deceived, their identities remained confidential, they were debriefed, they could withdraw, and they were protected from harm

Question 55

Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the role of culture on behavior and/or cognition. kulofsky

Answer 55

the study was ethical because there was informed consent, the participants were not deceived, they were debriefed, their identities remained confidential, they could withdraw, and they were protected from mental and physical harm