ERQ Sociocultural Flashcards
Cultural dimension definition + explanation
A cultural dimension is a pattern of values and behaviours in a culture. The concept of cultural dimensions was developed by Hofstede as a way of discussing and comparing cultures. One cultural dimension is individualism-collectivism. Hofstede’s classic research involved asking employees of the multinational company IBM to fill in surveys about morale in the workplace. He then carried out a factor analysis on the questionnaires, focusing on the key differences submitted by employees in different countries. His research is an example of an etic approach and it looked at the 40 most represented countries in the surveys.
Berry aim
Berry (1967) studied the role of the individualism-collectivism dimension on one’s likelihood to conform.
Berry procedure
The sample was made up of three different cultures.
Temne from Sierra Leone, a society that is based on rice farming.
Inuit people from Baffin Island in Canada, which survive by hunting and fishing.
Scots - a group that scores as “undefined” on the I-C scale.
Each group was made up of people who had never had a Western education and maintained the traditional way of life - and people who were “in transition” - either having a Western education or Western employment. Each individual was brought into a room by him or herself. For the test, they were given a set of nine lines and they were asked to match the line below that most closely matched the line on the top. These were the two practice tests to make sure that the directions were understood. The directions were given in their own language by a native interpreter using a pre-translated set of instructions and questions. On the third trial, the researcher pointed to an incorrect line and told the participant that this is what most people from their culture chose on this trial.
Berry findings
The Temne, which is a collectivistic culture, had a much higher rate of conformity when told what other Temne believed, even though it was incorrect. The Inuits, on the other hand, had an even lower rate of conformity than the Scots. There was no significant difference within groups - that means, it made no difference whether the participants were living the traditional life or were highly exposed to Western culture.
Berry evaluation
strengths:
- takes away researcher bias since instructions were given through back to back translation in participants own language
- highly replicable
limitations:
- low ecological validity (artificial setting and lab setting)
- dated (1967), raising questions of whether the growing influence of media and other globalisation influences could affect this concept
Kulkoffsky et al. aim
I-C can also influence cognition, such as memory. Kulkoffsky carried out a study to see if there were differences in the level of flashbulb memories in individualistic and collectivistic cultures.
cultural dimension, Individualism v Collectivism definition explination
A cultural dimension is a pattern of values and behaviours in a culture. The concept of cultural dimensions was developed by Hofstede as a way of discussing and comparing cultures. One cultural dimension is individualism-collectivism.
Individualistic cultures focus on uniqueness, individual achievement, freedom, and self-actualization. Collectivistic cultures focus on social harmony, interdependence, modesty, and group memberships. There are several studies that look at how cultural dimensions may affect the behavior of members of that culture, but there are questions about the validity of the research.
In individualist societies, the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. In collectivist societies, from birth onwards people are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts, and grandparents), which provide them with support and protection. However, if an individual does not live up to the norms of the family or the larger social group, the result can sometimes be severe.
Kulkoffsky et al. procedure
The sample was made up of about 250 participants from five different cultures. First, the participants were asked to recall memories of big news events in their lifetime. They were then given a questionnaire that asked them questions about what they were doing on the day of that event. They were also asked how important the event was to them personally and how important it was to their country. The survey was conducted in their native languages.
Kulkoffsky et al. findings
The results showed that Chinese participants (collectivistic) had fewer flashbulb memories than Americans (individualistic). In collectivistic cultures, it is not culturally appropriate to focus on the individual’s own experiences and emotions. This may mean that there would be less rehearsal of the memory of the event compared with participants from other cultures - and so fewer FBMs. However, it was found that if the event was of national importance, there was no significant difference in the level of FBMs
Kulkoffsky et al. evaluation
pros
- person of culture administered test/questionaires given in native language: avoids interviewer effect
- participants more likely to recall memories when test given in their native language
- back to back translation -> making sure that miscommunication doesnt have a negative impact on the responses
cons
- danger of ecological fallacy: just because the participants come from the culture being studied, this does not mean that they necessarily share the traits of the culture’s predominant dimensions
- It cannot be verified in this study whether those personal memories actually exist but were not reported.
individualism v collectivism evaluation
pros
- much research has been done
cons
- ecological fallacy: assuming 2 members from different cultures are diff. or two from the same are the same
- psychologists can generalise ab behaviours
- stereotype threat: we assume things ab cultures
- researcher bias can play a role
- correlational in nature
Enculturation definition + explanation
Enculturation is the process of adopting or internalizing the behaviors and values of ones culture - a process also known as socialization.
Results in the development of cultural schema
enculturation is universal, but how it comes about isn’t
There are many ways in which people can become enculturated, including through education, parents, peers and media.
acculturation definition + explanation
the process of learning and adopting the behaviors of another culture. There are several groups that do this – immigrants, refugees, exchange students, and people working for international companies. But not everyone does it to the same extent.
Berry proposed a model that was based on two key factors. First, one’s feelings about the need to preserve their own culture; Second, one’s relationship with the new culture. He proposed four strategies for acculturation. Assimilation is when one “abandons” one’s own culture and completely adopts the values and behaviors of the new culture. Integration is when one is comfortable in both cultures. Separation is when one maintains their own culture and does not adopt the values/behaviors of the new culture. And finally, marginalization is when one does not identify with their own culture and yet is not accepted or does not identify with the new culture.
Lueck and Wilson aim
investigated the variables that may predict acculturative stress in a sample of about 3000 Asian Americans.
Lueck and Wilson procedure
about 2000 Asian Americans. about half of the participants were first-generation immigrants who were 18 years and older when they came to the US. The rest of the sample was born in the US to first-generation immigrant parents. The sample consisted of several different Asian cultures, including Chinese, Filipino, and Vietnamese.
The researchers carried out semi-structured interviews. The interviews measured the participants’ level of acculturative stress. They also measured the impact of language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion, and socioeconomic status on acculturative stress.The interviewers had cultural and linguistic backgrounds similar to those of the sample population. Interviews were conducted either over the Internet or face-to-face.
Lueck and Wilson results
70% of the sample were found to have acculturative stress.
higher stress:
- preference for speaking English
- Negative treatment by the dominant culture
lower stress:
- bilingual language preference
- Sharing similar values and beliefs as a family
- satisfied with their economic opportunities
Luek and Wilson evaluation
strengths:
- large sample, which generates a considerable amount of data
- interviews were conducted by people who were familiar with both the respective cultures and the context of the investigation
- semi structured interviews gave interviewer opportunity to enable each participant to supply more detailed info where necessary
limitations:
- correlational results, with difficulties in identifying cause and effect despite nature of semi structured interviews
- not always easy to determine which stresses were non-acculturational in origin
Miranda + Methany aim
to see which factors in the lives of Latino immigrants to the United States would decrease the level of acculturative stress
Miranda + Methany procedure
A random sample of 197 members of two social services agencies completed a questionnaire as well as standardized tests to assess family cohesion, level of acculturation, acculturative stress, and coping strategies for stress.
Miranda + Methany findings
The findings suggested that immigrants with effective coping strategies, good proficiency in English, and a strong family structure were less likely to experience acculturative stress. In addition, immigrants who had spent a longer time in the US were less like to demonstrate acculturative stress and show a higher level of acculturation.
Miranda + Methany evaluation
- data was taken in a single point in time, which limits the understanding of how stress changes over time. Longitudinal studies may provide more insight
- may not provide all information bc they are scared of being found out (if illegal immigrants)/give biased answers or things they think others would want to hear
Acculturation with regard to behaviour/or cognition evaluation
cons
- many things studies within acculturation research could be considered subjective and difficult to measure on a standardised scale (e.g. acculturative stress, family cohesion, and life statisfaction)
- often a language problem giving tests to immigrants (not only if they understand the question but also how they interpret the question)
- many variables that influence the experience of migrants in a new culture making it difficult to find a representative sample of what healthy acculturation looks like
- In the study of immigrants, illegal immigrants are often absent from the research for fear of discovery and deportation.
acculturation with regard to one behaviour/cognition definition+explanation
Acculturation is the process of learning and adopting the behaviors of another culture. There are several groups that do this – immigrants, refugees, exchange students, and people working for international companies. But not everyone does it to the same extent. Psychologists have found that the way that one acculturates can have an effect on their mental and physical health.
Acculturative Stress refers to the anxiety that one may feel when attempting to assimilate into a new culture.
social cognitive theory definition/explanation
Developed by Albert Bandura, explains how humans learn behavior by observation and being reinforced by society. Assumes that humans learn behavior through observational learning in other words, people can learn by watching models and imitating their behavior. We do not need positive reinforcement to continue the behavior. The fact that the model was rewarded or punished for a behavior, is enough for us. Social cognitive learning theory argues that learning is most likely to occur if the observer has high self-efficacy.
Self–efficacy is one’s belief in one’s ability to successfully accomplish a task. Those who have low levels of self-efficacy will fear failure and are less likely to attempt imitating the behavior of the model. Social cognitive learning theory helps explain why behaviors may be passed down in a family or within a culture.
Humans learn by observation and imitation R.A.M.P
Retention
Attention
Motivation
Potential
social cognitive theory evaluation
pros
- emperical evidence to support (validity both in lab by Bandura and natural enviornments in Charlton)
- can be applied to a large range of behaviours
- complex theory explaining cultural differences in behaviours
cons
- the theory is only one perspective and it does not account for biological factors in aggression
- ethical concerns with undue stress or harm and briefing/debriefing
bandura aim
to see if children were more imitate aggression modelled by an adult and whether they were more likely to imitate same sex models
bandura procedure
children aged 3-6 were placed in groups matched in regards to levels of aggression. one group was exposed to physical or verbal aggression against a doll, the second group observed a non aggressive adult, and as a control the third group did not see a model.
after watching the models the children were placed in a room with toys that they were told were not for them to promote aggression. after that they were taken out and placed in a room with the doll and their behaviour was secretly observed by scientists.
bandura findings
children who observed the aggressive models were significantly more aggressive both physically and verbally and showed clear signs of observational learning
bandura also observed that girls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression
when boys observed women physically abusing the doll, they were less likely to imitate the behaviour, showing that children were more likely to imitate the same-sex adult
bandura evaluation
simple to replicate
- It has been replicated and shown that the results are generally accurate.
- all the variables such as gender and age, can be controlled
- a limitation is that all the participants were kindergartners from Stanford professors ->meaning that they most likely came from a wealthy background, so this experiment is not able to have any predictive validity across different classes.
- no way of knowing whether these aggressive behaviors were long-term, as the children were only looked at one point in their lives
- hard to pinpoint what exactly aggression is
- It can be argued that bashing a Bobo doll can or cannot be aggressive, and it depends on the child’s mindset when they hit the doll.
charlton et al aim
to investigate the effects of television on childrens behaviour
charlton et al procedure
This was a natural experiment using observational methods
- Charlton and his colleagues set up the experiment two years before the introduction of television, so that they could observe children’s behaviour both before and after they were exposed to it
- Children (aged three to eight years) were observed through cameras set up in the playgrounds of two primary schools on the island
- In 1994 (before the introduction of television), the researchers filmed 256 minutes of free play in the school playgrounds
- In 2000, behaviour was observed again, with 344 minutes of free play being recorded
- The researchers analysed the children’s aggressive behaviour and compared it to the amount of television that children were exposed to particularly in terms of the amount of violence they watched
- The researchers also conducted interviews with teachers, parents and some of the older children.
charlton findings
Found no significant change in aggression levels following television exposure.
charlton evaluation
pros
- Both studies used a pre-test/post-test design, allowing researchers to observe change over time.
- The researchers worked in teams - using researcher triangulation - to improve the reliability of the ratings.
- data trigulation (parents, older kids, etc) increases reliability of data
cons
- several uncontrolled variables -> low internal validity
- poorly controlled so ability for cause-and-effect identification is low
social identity theory definition/explanation
Psychologists argue that we all have several social selfs or identities which correspond to different groups. According to the theory we need to know who we are and what our values are in social contexts. Social identity theory is based on the cognitive process of social categorization: the process of classifying people into groups based on similar characteristics. This categorization gives rise to in-groups (us) and out-groups (them).
social identity theory evaluation
pros
- Acknowledges that behavior is an interaction of several factors, making the theory holistic.
- Applicable across cultures, reducing potential biases.
- Supported by Tajfel study demonstrating the “minimal group paradigm.”
cons
- Difficult to test all aspects of the theory within a single study.
- Difficulty separating group identity from personal identity.
zimbardo aim
to see how one’s social identity may affect behavior
zimbardo procedure
Stanford basement was converted to a mock prison. Prisoners were treated like every other criminal. Guards wore special sunglasses, to make eye contact with prisoners impossible. Prisoners were issued numbers, which they were addressed by instead of names. Guards were instructed to do whatever they thought was necessary to maintain law and order in the prison and to command the respect of the prisoners. Experiment lasted six days.
zimbardo findings
Within hours of beginning the experiment some guards began to harass prisoners. The prisoners adopted prisoner-like behavior too. They talked about prison issues a great deal of the time. They started taking the prison rules very seriously. There was also a loss of self identity among the prisoners which showed when they signed off their letters to home with their number instead of their real names.
zimbardo evaluation
cons
- ethics: denied right to leave, physical and emotional distress, not properly debriefed, taken from homes without warning
- not generalisable to real life/study has low ecological validity
- the participants, who were college students, didn’t reflect the diverse backgrounds typically found in actual prisons in terms of ethnicity, education, and socioeconomic status.
tajfel aim
to see how one’s social identity may affect behavior
tajfel procedure
A sample of 48 boys, ages 14 - 15 years old
asked to rate 12 paintings by abstract expressionist painters Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky. They were not aware of which artist had painted which painting during the test. The boys were then randomly allocated to one of two groups and told that they preferred either Klee or Kandinsky.
Each boy was then given the task to award points to two other boys, one from his same group and one from the other group. The only information that each boy was given was the code numbers and the name of the group of the two boys they were supposed to award. There were two systems of awarding points that were employed by the researchers.
Point allocation system 1: The point scores for each boy were linked so that the sum of the two scores was 15. If a participant chose 8, the other boy automatically got a score of 7 (15 - 8). This means that as the score for the participant increases, the score of the other boy decreases.
Point allocation system 2: In the second method of allocating points, Tajfel manipulated the system.
-> If a Klee member chose a high value for another Klee member, it would give a higher profit to the out-group.
-> If a Klee member chose a mid-range value for another Klee member, it would give the same points to the other group.
-> If a Klee member chose a low value for another Klee member, it would award only 1 point to the other team.
tajfel findings
In the first system of point allocation, the boys generally awarded more points to the members of their in-group showing in-group favoritism
In the second system of point awarding, the boys were willing to give their own team fewer points to maximize the difference between their in-group and the out-group. This was a bit surprising since it meant that the boys left the study with fewer points than if they had all given each other the largest number of points possible.
One of the most obvious conclusions that we can draw from this experiment is the natural tendency of members of a group to favor their in-group. Despite the seemingly meaningless groupings created by the experimenters, the participants were able to identify with their respective groups and create a positive social identity by giving their in-group more points. Tajfel demonstrated that a “minimal group” is all that is necessary for individuals to exhibit discrimination against an out-group. This experiment is considered a classic in psychology because it demonstrates that intergroup conflict is not required for discrimination to occur. The study thus challenged previous beliefs that competition was necessary and sufficient to produce prejudice.
tajfel evaluation
strengths:
- easily replicable, and replications have shown similar results
- supports social identity theory, even where in-groups and out-groups are formed randomly
weaknesses:
- difficulties in generalising because the study only used british schoolboys
- greater bias and discrimination may have been shown by winners being allowed to keep the money after winning activities
Discuss (or Evaluate) one or more effects of stereotyping on behavior.
Our social world is very complex and thus presents us with too much information. Since our capacity to process information is limited, our social world needs to be simplified. One way to avoid this information overload is through social categorisation. The information is used in social categorisation is stereotypes. A “stereotype” is a mental representation and a form of social categorization made about specific individuals or a group and its members. Once a set of characteristics is used to describe a group of people, those characteristics are often attributed to all members of the group, thus affecting the behaviour of the people or individual who hold the stereotype, and those who are labelled by a stereotype. Gender, race, political stance, and personality contribute to the stereotypes we place on others, but they are generally based on race and gender. This generalization may either be positive or negative, based on certain group membership or physical attributes, however most stereotypes of today are negative, exaggerating the quality and cognitively-associating such trait to all individuals that are part of the group leading to discrimination and prejudice, thus increasing self-esteem about themselves and their in-group. Stereotype threat occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically or a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm a stereotype. Stereotype threat turns on spotlight anxiety, which causes emotional distress and pressure that may undermine performance and cause reduced effort. This “self-handicapping” can offer psychological protection by providing an explanation for failure even while undermining performance.
steele & aaronson aim
see how stereotype threat affects test performance in African Americans.
steele and aaronson procedure
The sample was made up of 76 male and female, black and white undergraduates from Stanford University. The participants were given a standardized test of verbal ability and were told either that it was a test to diagnose their intellectual ability or that it was a test of their problem-solving skills. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the conditions.
steele and aaronson findings
There was no significant difference between male and female participants. However, African Americans did poorly when they believed that the test was a test of their intellectual ability, but did just as well as the white Americans when they believed that it was a test of their problem-solving skills.
steele and aaronson evaluation
pros
- independent samples design: participant variablity was minimalised -> more generalisable
cons
- sample of Stanford Uni students, may not be representative (difficult to generalise findings)
- Although there is a difference between the two average scores, it does not necessarily mean that the participants experienced stereotype threat. Their salience about their racial identity and their levels of stress during the exam were not measured in this first variation of the experiment.
stone aim
the study was carried out to find out if the way a sport is framed would impede the performance of members of different racial groups
stone procedure
Participants were told that they were going to be tested on a golf-related task. The task was either described as reflecting “factors correlated with natural athletic ability” (high stereotype threat) or “factors correlated with general sports performance” (low stereotype threat).
stone findings
Stone found that white athletes practiced significantly less in the high threat compared with the low threat condition. The control group, made up of African Americans, did not show any difference in the two conditions.
stone evaluation
pros
- experimental design: control over variables -> enhances internal validity of study
- realistic activity (playing golf) -> increases ecological validity
- clear operationalization of stereotype threat through the framing of the task as related to “natural athletic ability” or “general sports performance.”
cons
- The study primarily focuses on white and African American participants, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other racial or ethnic groups.
- While the task is realistic, the setting may not fully replicate real-world
- Inducing stereotype threat could cause undue stress or harm
Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the individual and the group.
undue stress or harm + right to withdraw
zimbardo, tajfel
Discuss (or Evaluate) the use of one or more research methods in the study of the role of culture on behavior and/or cognition.
Quasi experiment BERRY
A quasi-experiment does not have a random allocation of participants, so participant variability may play a role in the findings
quasi-experiments do not establish a cause-and-effect relationship because an IV is not manipulated.
real-life applicability
Ethical
less control
Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the role of culture on behavior and/or cognition. 1
berry
the study was mostly ethical as there was informed consent, they were partially deceived, their identities remained confidential, they were debriefed, they could withdraw, and they were protected from harm
Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the role of culture on behavior and/or cognition. 2
kulkofsky
the study was ethical because there was informed consent, the participants were not deceived, they were debriefed, their identities remained confidential, they could withdraw, and they were protected from mental and physical harm
acculturation evaluation
cons
- Berrys four strategies are difficult to measure and value
- -> assumes people fit into neat categories
- complexity due to the holistic nature of acculturation research
- model labels people as having fixed strategies although they are very context-dependent
- berry model is very simplisitic
Discuss enculturation with regard to one behavior. definition/explanation
Enculturation is the process of adopting or internalizing the behaviors and values of one’s culture - a process also known as socialization. Enculturation results in the development of cultural schema. One of the key behaviors that is enculturated is gender roles. A gender role, also known as a sex role, is a social role encompassing a range of behaviors and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their biological or perceived sex. There are several theories of how enculturation takes place. One theory is that we learn through direct tuition. This is supported by a naturalistic observation carried out by Fagot. Another explanation is that Social Cognitive theory - or observational learning - plays a key role, as shown in a study done by Smith and Lloyd. It is most likely, however, to be a combination of factors that leads to enculturation.
Discuss enculturation with regard to one behaviour. theory evaluation
pros
- Supported by cross-cultural evidence, demonstrating the influence of culture on gender roles.
- Provides insight into the dynamic nature of gender norms.
cons
- Cultural bias in research (e.g., Western-centric interpretations of gender norms in Fagot’s study).
- oversimplifies interactions between sociocultural and biological factors
- Fails to account for individual agency and resistance to gender norms (e.g., androgyny or gender fluidity)
fagot aim
to see how parents play a role in the development of our gender roles.
fagot procedure
The sample was made up of twenty-four white families. Each family had only one child between 20 and 24 months. parents were between 20 and 30 years old. Each family was observed over a five week period. Observers used an observation checklist to observe the parents and their toddlers. After the observations were finished, each parent was asked to rate the behaviors on the checklist as more appropriate for girls, for boys or neutral.
fagot findings
It was found that parents reacted significantly more favorably to the child when the child was engaged in gender-appropriate behavior and was more likely to give negative responses to “gender inappropriate” behaviors. The parents’ perceptions of their interactions with their children did not correlate with what was observed by the researchers, indicating that this is not a conscious behavior
fagot conclusion
In conclusion, the study showed that the way parents react to certain behaviors in their children can influence the child’s perception of gender roles and understanding of what is socially correct or incorrect depending on their gender. This study demonstrates direct tuition
fagot evaluation
- lacks internal validity since no independent variable was manipulated, and no cause-and-effect relationship can be determined
- As the observation was clear, participants may have behaved differently due to demand characteristics.
- While parents were unaware of specific gender-related observations, there was still a risk of researcher bias as researchers may have focused on data that confirmed their hypotheses.
smith and lloyd aim
to see how gender labelling would affect toy choice for children
smith and lloyd procedure
new mothers were just asked to play with a baby which, unknowingly, was crossdressed and named. They were placed in a room with gender specific toys and their interactions were filmed by researchers.
smith and lloyd findings
The study showed that the mothers would choose toys that aligned with the child’s perceived gender and were more active with children they thought were boys.
smith and lloyd conclusion
his study shows that the way that parents interact with a child may play a role in enculturation, teaching the child what is appropriate behavior in their culture. In this case, which toys they should play with and the accepted level of physical activity.
smith and lloyd evaluation
- Independent group design = differences in treatment could be due to individual differences between participants
- Small sample size and culturally biased: Non-representative
- Being videoed: Maybe not natural behaviour + another person’s child
