ERQ Sociocultural

Question 1

Berry aim

Answer 1

Berry (1967) studied the role of the individualism-collectivism dimension on one’s likelihood to conform.

Question 2

Berry procedure

Answer 2

Berry used three distinctly different cultures. First, the Temne of Sierra Leone, a society that is based on rice farming. The Inuit people of Baffin Island in Canada, which survives by hunting and fishing. Lastly, he used Scots as a reference group, made up of both urban and rural Scots. There were approximately 120 participants in each group. Each group was made up of people who had never had a western education and maintained the traditional way of life - and people who were “in transition” either have Western education or had Western employment. For the test, they were given a set of nine lines. They were asked to match the line below that most closely matched the line on the top. On the third trial, the researcher pointed to an incorrect line and told the participant that this is what most people from their culture chose on this trial.

Question 3

Berry findings

Answer 3

The Temne, which is a collectivistic culture, had a much higher rate of conformity when told what other Temne believed, even though it was incorrect. The Inuits, on the other hand, had an even lower rate of conformity than the Scots. There was no significant difference within groups - that means, it made no difference whether the participants were living the traditional life or were highly exposed to Western culture.

Question 4

Berry evaluation

Answer 4

pros
- takes away researcher bias since instructions were given through back to back translation in participants own language
- highly replicable

cons
- low ecological validity (artificial setting and lab setting)
- dated (1967), raising questions of whether the growing influence of media and other globalisation influences could affect this concept
- important that we don’t make the ecological fallacy, believing that since an individual is a member of one of these groups, he would be more or less likely to conform. The results of such research can lead to stereotyping about cultural groups.

Question 5

Kulkoffsky et al. aim

Answer 5

I-C can also influence cognition, such as memory. Kulkoffsky carried out a study to see if there were differences in the level of flashbulb memories in individualistic and collectivistic cultures.

Question 6

cultural dimension, Individualism v Collectivism definition explination

Answer 6

A cultural dimension is a pattern of values and behaviours in a culture. The concept of cultural dimensions was developed by Hofstede as a way of discussing and comparing cultures. One cultural dimension is individualism-collectivism.

Individualistic cultures focus on uniqueness, individual achievement, freedom, and self-actualization. Collectivistic cultures focus on social harmony, interdependence, modesty, and group memberships.
In individualist societies, the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. In collectivist societies, from birth onwards people are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts, and grandparents), which provide them with support and protection. However, if an individual does not live up to the norms of the family or the larger social group, the result can sometimes be severe.

Question 7

Kulkoffsky et al. procedure

Answer 7

The sample was made up of about 250 participants from five different cultures. First, the participants were asked to recall memories of big news events in their lifetime. They were then given a questionnaire that asked them questions about what they were doing on the day of that event. They were also asked how important the event was to them personally and how important it was to their country. The survey was conducted in their native languages.

Question 8

Kulkoffsky et al. findings

Answer 8

The results showed that Chinese participants (collectivistic) had fewer flashbulb memories than Americans (individualistic). In collectivistic cultures, it is not culturally appropriate to focus on the individual’s own experiences and emotions. This may mean that there would be less rehearsal of the memory of the event compared with participants from other cultures - and so fewer FBMs. However, it was found that if the event was of national importance, there was no significant difference in the level of FBMs

Question 9

Kulkoffsky et al. evaluation

Answer 9

pros
- person of culture administered test/questionaires given in native language: avoids interviewer effect
- participants more likely to recall memories when test given in their native language
- back to back translation -> making sure that miscommunication doesnt have a negative impact on the responses

cons
- danger of ecological fallacy: just because the participants come from the culture being studied, this does not mean that they necessarily share the traits of the culture’s predominant dimensions
- It cannot be verified in this study whether those personal memories actually exist but were not reported.

Question 10

Enculturation definition + explanation

Answer 10

Enculturation is the process of adopting or internalizing the behaviors and values of ones culture - a process also known as socialization.
Results in the development of cultural schema
enculturation is universal, but how it comes about isn’t
There are many ways in which people can become enculturated, including through education, parents, peers and media.

Question 11

acculturation definition + explanation

Answer 11

the process of learning and adopting the behaviors of another culture. There are several groups that do this – immigrants, refugees, exchange students, and people working for international companies. But not everyone does it to the same extent.

Berry proposed a model that was based on two key factors.
1. one’s feelings about the need to preserve their own culture
2. one’s relationship with the new culture

He proposed four strategies for acculturation
1. Assimilation = one “abandons” one’s own culture and completely adopts the values and behaviors of the new culture.
2. Integration = one is comfortable in both cultures.
3. Separation = one maintains their own culture and does not adopt the values/behaviors of the new culture.
4. Marginalization = one does not identify with their own culture and yet is not accepted or does not identify with the new culture.

Question 12

Lueck and Wilson aim

Answer 12

investigated the variables that may predict acculturative stress in a sample of about 2000 Asian Americans and Asian immigrants.

Question 13

Lueck and Wilson procedure

Answer 13

• The study involved 2095 Asian American participants.
• Researchers conducted semi-structured interviews to measure acculturative stress and its potential predictors: language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion, and socioeconomic status.
• Interviewers, who shared similar cultural and linguistic backgrounds with the participants, conducted the interviews either online or face-to-face.

Question 14

Lueck and Wilson results

Answer 14

70% of the sample were found to have acculturative stress.

higher stress:
- preference for speaking English
- Negative treatment by the dominant culture

lower stress:
- bilingual language preference
- Sharing similar values and beliefs as a family
- satisfied with their economic opportunities

Question 15

Luek and Wilson evaluation

Answer 15

strengths:
- large sample, which generates a considerable amount of data -> easier to generalise
- interviews were conducted by people who were familiar with both the respective cultures and the context of the investigation -> enhances understanding of participant
- semi structured interviews gave interviewer opportunity to enable each participant to supply more detailed info where necessary

limitations:
- not always easy to determine which stresses were non-acculturational in origin
- large number of interviews = time-consuming and costly
- ecological fallacy: certain assumptions made about “Asians” - for example, assumptions that the cultures are collectivistic without actually measuring each individual’s level of collectivism.

Question 16

Miranda + Matheny aim

Answer 16

to see which factors in the lives of Latino immigrants to the United States would decrease the level of acculturative stress

Question 17

Miranda + Methany procedure

Answer 17

A random sample of 197 members of two social services agencies completed a questionnaire as well as standardized tests to assess family cohesion, level of acculturation, acculturative stress, and coping strategies for stress.

Question 18

Miranda + Methany findings

Answer 18

The findings suggested that immigrants with effective coping strategies, good proficiency in English, and a strong family structure were less likely to experience acculturative stress. In addition, immigrants who had spent a longer time in the US were less like to demonstrate acculturative stress and show a higher level of acculturation.

Question 19

Miranda + Methany evaluation

Answer 19

pros
- standardised method (questionare, standardised test) > easily replicable

cons
- data was taken in a single point in time, which limits the understanding of how stress changes over time. Longitudinal studies may provide more insight
- may not provide all information bc they are scared of being found out (if illegal immigrants)/give biased answers or things they think others would want to hear

Question 20

Acculturation with regard to behaviour/or cognition evaluation

Answer 20

cons

• Many of the constructs that are studied in acculturation research could be considered subjective and difficult to measure on a standardized scale - e.g. acculturative stress, family cohesion, and life satisfaction.
• There is often a language problem in giving tests to immigrants. It is not only a question of whether they understand the vocabulary of the test but how they interpret the questions.
• When measuring “acculturation,” psychologists make assumptions about what healthy - acculturation looks like.
• There are many variables that may influence the experience of migrants in a new culture. These include the immigrants’ age at the time of migration, length of residency, education, sexual orientation, religion, socioeconomic class, and trauma experienced prior to arrival in the new culture -> makes it difficult to find representative samples that can be used to generate theory about the acculturation experience.
• In the study of immigrants, illegal immigrants are often absent from the research for fear of discovery and deportation.

Question 21

acculturation with regard to one behaviour/cognition definition+explanation

Answer 21

Acculturation is the process of learning and adopting the behaviours of another culture. There are several groups that do this – immigrants, refugees, exchange students, and people working for international companies. But not everyone does it to the same extent.

Berry proposed a model that was based on two key factors. First, one’s feelings about the need to preserve their own culture; Second, one’s relationship with the new culture.

He proposed four strategies for acculturation. Assimilation is when one “abandons” one’s own culture and completely adopts the values and behaviours of the new culture. Integration is when one is comfortable in both cultures. Separation is when one maintains their own culture and does not adopt the values/behaviours of the new culture. And finally, marginalization is when one does not identify with their own culture and yet is not accepted or does not identify with the new culture.

Psychologists have found that the way that one acculturates can have an effect on their mental and physical health. Acculturative Stress refers to the anxiety that one may feel when attempting to assimilate into a new culture.

Question 22

social cognitive theory definition/explanation

Answer 22

Developed by Albert Bandura, explains how humans learn behaviour by observation and being reinforced by society. Assumes that humans learn behaviour through observational learning, in other words, people can learn by watching models and imitating their behaviour. We do not need positive reinforcement to continue the behaviour. The fact that the model was rewarded or punished for a behaviour, is enough for us. Social cognitive learning theory argues that learning is most likely to occur if the observer has high self-efficacy.
Self–efficacy is one’s belief in one’s ability to successfully accomplish a task. Those who have low levels of self-efficacy will fear failure and are less likely to attempt imitating the behaviour of the model

Humans learn by observation and imitation
1. Attention (In order for the learning to happen, attention must be paid to the model; this can be affected by the authority, attractiveness, or desirability of the model’s behavior or the outcome of said behavior.)
2. Motivation (The learner must have the motivation to repeat the behavior based on the outcome expectancy. > Several factors affect the learner’s motivation to replicate the behavior, such as the likeability of the model, identification with the model, and consistency of the behavior.)
3. Potential (Following the observation, the learner must be able to retain and remember the behavior.)

Question 23

social cognitive theory evaluation

Answer 23

pros
- emperical evidence to support (validity both in lab by Bandura and natural enviornments in Charlton)
- can be applied to a large range of behaviours
- complex theory explaining cultural differences in behaviours (‘models’ are significant and respected by specific cultures)

cons
- doesnt account for biological factors of (for example) aggression
- R.A.M.P -> difficult to measure in a natural setting
- difficult to measure learning -> time gap between observing a behaviour and imitating it (if behaviour isnt displayed doesnt mean they didnt learn it)

Question 24

bandura aim

Answer 24

to see if children were more likely to imitate aggression modelled by an adult and whether they were more likely to imitate same sex models

Question 25

bandura procedure

Answer 25

The study was made up of 3 - 5-year-old children. They were first evaluated to determine their level of aggression. Bandura then used a matched-pairs design to make sure that the different levels of aggression were evenly distributed in the groups. There were three independent variables in this study: whether the children were exposed to violence or not, the gender of the child, and the gender of the model. The children then watched either a male or a female model either act aggressively (bashing the Bobo with a baseball bat and yelling at the Bobo), act passively (assembling toys), or they had no model. This served as the control group to see what children would do when simply but with the Bobo. The children were then individually invited into a room full of toys. After they saw all the toys, they were told that they were not allowed to play with them since they were for other children. This caused all of the children to feel frustrated. This was important because Bandura wanted to make sure that they all had the same level of arousal.

Question 26

bandura findings

Answer 26

children who observed the aggressive models were significantly more aggressive both physically and verbally and showed clear signs of observational learning bandura also observed that girls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression when boys observed women physically abusing the doll, they were less likely to imitate the behaviour, showing that children were more likely to imitate the same-sex adult

Question 27

bandura evaluation

Answer 27

simple to replicate - It has been replicated and shown that the results are generally accurate. - all the variables such as gender and age, can be controlled - a limitation is that all the participants were kindergartners from Stanford professors ->meaning that they most likely came from a wealthy background, so this experiment is not able to have any predictive validity across different classes. - no way of knowing whether these aggressive behaviors were long-term, as the children were only looked at one point in their lives - hard to pinpoint what exactly aggression is - It can be argued that bashing a Bobo doll can or cannot be aggressive, and it depends on the child’s mindset when they hit the doll.

Question 28

charlton et al aim

Answer 28

to investigate the effects of television on childrens behaviour

Question 29

charlton et al procedure

Answer 29

This was a natural experiment using observational methods - Charlton and his colleagues set up the experiment two years before the introduction of television, so that they could observe children’s behaviour both before and after they were exposed to it - 160 Children (aged three to eight years) were observed through cameras set up in the playgrounds of two primary schools on the island - In 1994 (before the introduction of television), the researchers filmed 256 minutes of free play in the school playgrounds - In 2000, behaviour was observed again, with 344 minutes of free play being recorded - The researchers analysed the children’s aggressive behaviour and compared it to the amount of television that children were exposed to particularly in terms of the amount of violence they watched - The researchers also conducted interviews with teachers, parents and some of the older children.

Question 30

abrams aim

Answer 30

Abrams did a replication of Asch (1956) to see if, as Social Identity Theory predicts, people are more likely to conform to the behavior of people in their in-group.

Question 31

abrams procedure

Answer 31

- introductory psychology students (23 males and 27 females) thought that they were taking a test of visual accuracy - At the start of the experiment, three confederates were introduced either as first-year students from the psychology department (in-group) or as students of ancient history (out-group). - The participants were shown a stimulus line, and then three other lines - one of which was the same length as the stimulus line - The task was to identify which of the three lines matched the stimulus line - There were 18 trials - In nine of the trials, the confederates gave the correct response - In nine of the trials, the confederates gave a unanimous, incorrect response

Question 32

abrams findings

Answer 32

There was a higher average number of conforming responses in the in-group condition than in the out-group condition. The participants also revealed in the post-experimental questionnaire that they had been less confident about their own judgment in the in-group condition. The results seem to indicate that social categorization can play a key role in one’s decision to conform.

Question 33

abrams evaluation

Answer 33

**pros** - The manipulation of the independent variable and the high level of control in the experiment allows us to see a causal relationship between group membership and the dependent variable - the rate of conformity to an incorrect response. **cons** - highly artificial: The study has low ecological validity and may not predict what would happen in a naturalistic situation. - The study was made up of university students, so the results may be difficult to generalize - The study was done in an individualistic society. It is culturally biased. - The study isolates a single variable to test its role in conformity; however, in real life, there may be several variables that interact to determine conformity behaviors.

Question 34

charlton findings

Answer 34

Found no increase in aggression or antisocial behaviour among children.

Question 35

charlton evaluation

Answer 35

**pros** - Both studies used a pre-test/post-test design, allowing researchers to observe change over time. - The researchers worked in teams - using researcher triangulation - to improve the reliability of the ratings. - data trigulation (parents, older kids, etc) increases reliability of data - natural experiment = high ecological validity **cons** - several uncontrolled variables -> low internal validity - natural experiment = difficult to replicate

Question 36

social identity theory definition/explanation

Answer 36

Psychologists argue that we all have several social selfs or identities which correspond to different groups. According to the theory we need to know who we are and what our values are in social contexts. Social identity theory is based on the cognitive process of social categorization: the process of classifying people into groups based on similar characteristics. This categorization gives rise to in-groups (us) and out-groups (them).

Question 37

social identity theory evaluation

Answer 37

**pros** - many applications irl - argued increases ones salience (you’re more aware of your group membership in the moment. This mental activation of your group identity affects how you think, feel, and act) - explains how juries make decisions (In-group Bias Toward Defendants or Victims) - why we may or may not conform **cons** - increased salience will also lead to stronger seperation from outgroups - Difficult to test all aspects of the theory within a single study. - Difficulty separating group identity from personal identity. - measuring how 'salient' ones identity is difficult - social identity theory occurs in many stages (from categorisation to self esteem) -> difficult to observe progression under naturalistic conditions

Question 38

tajfel aim

Answer 38

to see how one's social identity may affect behavior

Question 39

tajfel procedure

Answer 39

A sample of 48 boys, ages 14 - 15 years old asked to rate 12 paintings by abstract expressionist painters Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky. They were not aware of which artist had painted which painting during the test. The boys were then randomly allocated to one of two groups and told that they preferred either Klee or Kandinsky. Each boy was then given the task to award points to two other boys, one from his same group and one from the other group. There were two systems of awarding points that were employed by the researchers. Point allocation system 1: The point scores for each boy were linked so that the sum of the two scores was 15. If a participant chose 8, the other boy automatically got a score of 7 (15 - 8). This means that as the score for the participant increases, the score of the other boy decreases. Point allocation system 2: In the second method of allocating points, Tajfel manipulated the system. -> If a Klee member chose a high value for another Klee member, it would give a higher profit to the out-group. -> If a Klee member chose a mid-range value for another Klee member, it would give the same points to the other group. -> If a Klee member chose a low value for another Klee member, it would award only 1 point to the other team.

Question 40

tajfel findings

Answer 40

In the first system of point allocation, the boys generally awarded more points to the members of their in-group showing in-group favoritism In the second system of point awarding, the boys were willing to give their own team fewer points to maximize the difference between their in-group and the out-group. This was a bit surprising since it meant that the boys left the study with fewer points than if they had all given each other the largest number of points possible. One of the most obvious conclusions that we can draw from this experiment is the natural tendency of members of a group to favor their in-group. Despite the seemingly meaningless groupings created by the experimenters, the participants were able to identify with their respective groups and create a positive social identity by giving their in-group more points. Tajfel demonstrated that a "minimal group" is all that is necessary for individuals to exhibit discrimination against an out-group. This experiment is considered a classic in psychology because it demonstrates that intergroup conflict is not required for discrimination to occur. The study thus challenged previous beliefs that competition was necessary and sufficient to produce prejudice.

Question 41

tajfel evaluation

Answer 41

strengths: - easily replicable, and replications have shown similar results - supports social identity theory, even where in-groups and out-groups are formed randomly weaknesses: - difficulties in generalising because the study only used british schoolboys - greater bias and discrimination may have been shown by winners being allowed to keep the money after winning activities

Question 42

Discuss (or Evaluate) one or more effects of stereotyping on behavior.

Answer 42

- Our social world presents too much information for us to process fully. - To manage this, we use social categorisation to simplify our environment. - Stereotypes are mental representations used in social categorisation. - Stereotypes are generalized traits assigned to all members of a group. - These traits influence the behavior of both the person holding the stereotype and the person being stereotyped. - Stereotypes are most often based on race and gender, but can also include political stance and personality. - Generalisations can be positive or negative, though modern stereotypes tend to be negative and exaggerated. - Stereotypes can lead to discrimination, prejudice, and in-group favoritism, which can boost self-esteem. - **Stereotype threat** arises when someone fears being judged or treated according to a stereotype. - It can also occur when someone fears confirming a stereotype about their group. - This activates **spotlight anxiety**, causing stress and pressure that undermines performance. - People may engage in self-handicapping to protect their self-esteem, which further reduces performance.

Question 43

steele & aaronson aim

Answer 43

see how stereotype threat affects test performance in African Americans.

Question 44

steele and aaronson procedure

Answer 44

The sample was made up of 76 male and female, black and white undergraduates from Stanford University. The participants were given a standardized test of verbal ability and were told either that it was a test to diagnose their intellectual ability or that it was a test of their problem-solving skills. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the conditions.

Question 45

steele and aaronson findings

Answer 45

There was no significant difference between male and female participants. However, African Americans did poorly when they believed that the test was a test of their intellectual ability, but did just as well as the white Americans when they believed that it was a test of their problem-solving skills.

Question 46

steele and aaronson evaluation

Answer 46

**pros** - independent samples design: participant variablity was minimalised -> more generalisable **cons** - sample of Stanford Uni students, may not be representative (difficult to generalise findings) - Although there is a difference between the two average scores, it does not necessarily mean that the participants experienced stereotype threat. Their salience about their racial identity and their levels of stress during the exam were not measured in this first variation of the experiment.

Question 47

stone aim

Answer 47

the study was carried out to find out if the way a sport is framed would impede the performance of members of different racial groups

Question 48

stone procedure

Answer 48

Participants were told that they were going to be tested on a golf-related task. The task was either described as reflecting "factors correlated with natural athletic ability" (high stereotype threat) or "factors correlated with general sports performance" (low stereotype threat).

Question 49

stone findings

Answer 49

Stone found that white athletes practiced significantly less in the high threat compared with the low threat condition. The control group, made up of African Americans, did not show any difference in the two conditions. Stone’s study demonstrates that stereotype threat can influence behavior by reducing motivation and performance when individuals fear confirming negative group stereotypes. This highlights how stereotypes are not just social labels but can have real psychological effects on human behavior.

Question 50

stone evaluation

Answer 50

**pros** - experimental design: control over variables -> enhances internal validity of study - realistic activity (playing golf) -> increases ecological validity - clear operationalization of stereotype threat through the framing of the task as related to "natural athletic ability" or "general sports performance." **cons** - The study primarily focuses on white and African American participants, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other racial or ethnic groups. - While the task is realistic, the setting may not fully replicate real-world

Question 51

Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the individual and the group.

Answer 51

undue stress or harm + deception abrams, tajfel

Question 52

Discuss (or Evaluate) the use of one or more research methods in the study of the role of culture on behavior and/or cognition.

Answer 52

**Semi-structured Interviews, Lueck and Wilson** A semi-structured interview is a flexible type of interview where the researcher prepares a set of guiding questions or themes in advance, but can also ask follow-up questions based on the participant’s answers. It’s a mix of structured (fixed questions) and unstructured (open, free conversation) formats. **Questionnaires, Miranda & Matheny** A questionnaire is a written set of standardized questions that participants answer, usually on paper or online. The questions can be closed-ended (like multiple choice, rating scales) or open-ended (where participants write their own answers).

Question 53

Discuss two or more ethical considerations relevant to the study of the role of culture on behavior and/or cognition.

Answer 53

**Informed Consent** - Participants must fully understand the study before agreeing. - Harder in cross-cultural studies due to language barriers and unfamiliarity with research. 1. Berry: Non-Western participants (e.g., Temne, Inuit) may not have fully understood the study's purpose. 2. Kulkofsky: Cultural differences may affect how well participants understood what they consented to. **Debriefing** - Participants should be told the true aim after the study, especially if deception is used. 1. Berry: Participants were misled about group responses → possible discomfort in cultures where group opinion matters. 2. Kulkofsky: Emotional topics + different norms around authority and discussion → debriefing may not have been equally effective across cultures.

Question 54

acculturation evaluation

Answer 54

**cons** - holistic approach to understanding human health/wellness: difficult to know extent to which many variables involved play a role - refugees: cannot discount fact many experienced trauma - many refugees / asylum seekers never go back to home countries vs. international workers who plan to return "home" and do not see advantage to acculturation

Question 55

Discuss enculturation with regard to one behavior. definition/explanation

Answer 55

- Enculturation is the process of adopting or internalizing the behaviors and values of one’s culture = socialization - Enculturation leads to the development of cultural schemas. - One key behavior that is enculturated is gender roles. - A gender role (or sex role) includes behaviors and attitudes seen as acceptable or appropriate based on one’s biological or perceived sex. - There are multiple theories explaining how enculturation occurs. - One theory is **direct tuition**, where individuals are explicitly taught cultural norms. -> Fagot's naturalistic observation supports the role of direct tuition in gender role enculturation. - Another theory is **Social Cognitive Theory**, which emphasizes learning through observation and imitation. -> Smith and Lloyd's study supports the role of observational learning in enculturation - It is likely that enculturation results from a combination of factors, including both direct teaching and observational learning.

Question 56

Discuss enculturation with regard to one behaviour. theory evaluation

Answer 56

**pros** - Supported by cross-cultural evidence, demonstrating the influence of culture on gender roles. - Provides insight into the dynamic nature of gender norms. **cons** - Cultural bias in research (e.g., Western-centric interpretations of gender norms in Fagot’s study). - oversimplifies interactions between sociocultural and biological factors - Fails to account for individual agency and resistance to gender norms (e.g., androgyny or gender fluidity)

Question 57

fagot aim

Answer 57

to see how parents play a role in the development of our gender roles.

Question 58

fagot procedure

Answer 58

The sample was made up of twenty-four white families. Each family had only one child between 20 and 24 months. Parents were between 20 and 30 years old. Each family was observed over a five-week period, 5 60-mins observations. Observers used an observation checklist to observe the parents and their toddlers. After the observations were finished, each parent was asked to rate the behaviors on the checklist as more appropriate for girls, for boys or neutral and to fill out a questionaire on the socialisation of sex roles.

Question 59

fagot findings

Answer 59

It was found that parents reacted significantly more favorably to the child when the child was engaged in gender-appropriate behavior and was more likely to give negative responses to "gender inappropriate" behaviors. The parents' perceptions of their interactions with their children did not correlate with what was observed by the researchers, indicating that this is not a conscious behavior

Question 60

fagot conclusion

Answer 60

In conclusion, the study showed that the way parents react to certain behaviors in their children can influence the child's perception of gender roles and understanding of what is socially correct or incorrect depending on their gender. This study demonstrates direct tuition

Question 61

fagot evaluation

Answer 61

* lacks internal validity since no independent variable was manipulated, and no cause-and-effect relationship can be determined * As the observation was clear, participants may have behaved differently due to demand characteristics. * high ecological validity -> naturalistic (not done in lab) * sampling bias: white, American, 24 families = difficult to generalise * two observers -> verify observations arent influenced by personal bias = high inter-rate reliability (recorded same data through observations)

Question 62

smith and lloyd aim

Answer 62

to see how gender labelling would affect toy choice for children

Question 63

smith and lloyd procedure

Answer 63

new mothers were just asked to play with a baby which, unknowingly, was crossdressed and named. They were placed in a room with gender specific toys and their interactions were filmed by researchers.

Question 64

Discuss one or more effects of culture on behavior and/or cognition.

Answer 64

Culture influences behavior in many ways, one of which is conformity—the tendency to adjust one's thoughts, feelings, or behaviors to align with social or cultural norms. Cultural norms are the shared expectations and rules that guide behavior within a group. Conformity is often shaped by cultural values such as individualism and collectivism. In collectivist cultures, where group harmony, obedience, and interdependence are emphasized, conformity levels tend to be higher. In contrast, individualistic cultures promote independence and self-expression, often leading to lower levels of conformity. Studies such as Berry (1967). These cultural values can also shape how people process and remember information. In the context of cognition, cultural dimensions influence the formation of memory, especially flashbulb memories — vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events. Individuals from individualistic cultures may be more likely to focus on their personal emotional reactions and experiences, leading to stronger personal encoding of such memories. In contrast, people from collectivistic cultures may focus more on the social context or group relevance, which can affect what details are encoded and how strongly the event is remembered.

Question 65

smith and lloyd findings

Answer 65

The study showed that the mothers would choose toys that aligned with the child's perceived gender and were more active with children they thought were boys.

Question 66

smith and lloyd conclusion

Answer 66

his study shows that the way that parents interact with a child may play a role in enculturation, teaching the child what is appropriate behavior in their culture. In this case, which toys they should play with and the accepted level of physical activity.

Question 67

smith and lloyd evaluation

Answer 67

**Pros** - experimental design: by controlling variables can establish clear cause and effect relationship **Cons** - Small sample size and culturally biased: Non-representative - Being videoed: Maybe not natural behaviour + another person's child

Question 68

stereotype threat evaluation

Answer 68

**Pros:** Cross-cultural relevance (has been observed across multiple cultures) Real world application: performance gaps in education, workplace + can inform interventions **Cons:** May oversimplify complex social + individual factors Often lab experiments → may lack ecological validity (difficult to measure in natural conditions) Individual differences ignored (resilience, personality traits)

Question 69

Individualistic v. collectistic cultures theory evaluation

Answer 69

**Pros:** - Etic in nature: allows researchers to directly compare behaviors across cultures using standardized methods, increasing cross-cultural validity and the ability to identify universal pattern - Widely applicable in the real world (For instance, psychologists can better understand client behavior based on their cultural values—such as how much someone values independence vs. social harmony) **Cons:** - May lead us to make the ecological fallacy -> participants coming from the same culture doesnt mean they share traits of the cultures dimensions - Danger of stereotyping

Question 70

Discuss (or Evaluate) one or more studies of enculturation evaluation

Answer 70

Pros * Explains cultural continuity (how cultural values are passed down between generations) -> crucial for understanding how cultural identities are preserved * Universally applicable Cons * Too many variables in theory that arent considered * Culture is dynamic -> research doesnt explain how culture changes over time -> problem of the operationalisation of culture as a variable in a globalised Internet-connected world * assumes we develop behaviour by interacting with our environment (ignored biological factors)

Question 71

Discuss one or more effects of culture on behavior and/or cognition. evaluation

Answer 71

**Pros**: - emperical support - cross-cultural validity **Cons**: - cultural overgeneralisation possible - ignores individual differences - low ecological validity -> many tasks used to measure conformity (eg. Berry - Asch Paradigm) dont reflect real world decision making as they're artificial

Question 72

Discuss (or Evaluate) the use of one or more research methods in the study of the role of culture on behavior and/or cognition. (Semi-structured interviews Evaluation)

Answer 72

**pros** - more personal than questionnaire - allow the researcher to ask follow-up questions when they get an interesting or unclear response (this avoids the problem where an individual did not understand the question or wrote something ambiguous/undeveloped) **cons** - carrying out large numbers of interviews is time-consuming and costly - necessary to train interviewers - interviews are also open to interviewer effects - where characteristics of the interviewer may lead the interviewee to disclose less (or more) information

Question 73

Berry's model (acculturation) evaluation

Answer 73

**cons:** - one direction -> refugees need to fit into mainstream culture - hierarchical (many argue), not recognising cultural changes over time - model is helpful but overly simplistic **alternative:** La Fromboise's alternation model argues peoples relationship with culture changes based on time and situation

Question 74

Discuss (or Evaluate) the use of one or more research methods in the study of the individual and the group. Definition / Explanation

Answer 74

**Bandrua, Lab Experiment** In the sociocultural approach, psychologists explore how individuals are influenced by their social environment and group interactions. Research methods like experiments and naturalistic observations are used to study how group dynamics, such as social norms or role models, affect individual behavior. One widely used method is the true experiment, which allows researchers to establish **cause-and-effect relationships** by **manipulating** variables under **controlled** conditions. **Charlton et al, natural experiment** - The independent variable (introduction of television to the island of St. Helena) was not manipulated by the researchers — it occurred naturally. - The researchers observed children's behaviour before and after television was introduced, using observational methods in school playgrounds. - There was no random allocation of participants to conditions (since it was a whole community being studied). - It took place in a real-world environment (schools), not a lab — which increases ecological validity.

Question 75

Discuss (or Evaluate) the use of one or more research methods in the study of the individual and the group. (Bandura) Evaluation

Answer 75

**Pros** - high internal validity - independent variable (type of model) was carefully manipulated - the dependent variable (child’s behavior) was systematically recorded using a standardized observational checklist - Random assignment minimized participant variables, allows strong causal conclusions **Cons** - artificial setting may limit ecological validity — children might not act the same way in real-life social situations

Question 76

Discuss (or Evaluate) the use of one or more research methods in the study of the role of culture on behavior and/or cognition. (Questionaires Evaluation)

Answer 76

**Pros:** - Everyone answers the same questions, which makes it easy to compare answers and find patterns. - When questions have set answers (like yes/no or rating scales), it’s easy to quantify and study them. - If people can answer anonymously, they might be more honest, especially when talking about personal or sensitive topics. **Cons:** - Questionnaires often don’t let people explain their thoughts in detail, so researchers might miss important information. - Social desirability bias. sometimes, people answer in a way they think is more socially acceptable instead of telling the truth, especially on personal topics. - Low response rates: Some people don’t bother to respond → sample might be biased - When questions only offer a few answers, people might have to pick one that doesn’t exactly match what they think

Question 77

Discuss (or Evaluate) the use of one or more research methods in the study of the individual and the group. (Charlton) Evaluation

Answer 77

**Pros:** - High ecological validity - Allows study of real-world phenomena **Cons:** - Low control > Many confounding variables may influence results - Difficult to replicate