SAQ Cog Theories Flashcards
Explain one model of memory with reference to one study/explain the multistore model of memory with reference to one study
multistore model of memory
-3 separate locations:
- sensory stores
-> attention - short term memory
-> rehearsal - long term memory
-> retrieval = short term memory
The model argues that memory consists of three separate locations in which information is stored which are sequential and work in a uniform way. The model suggests that sensory information enters the sensory memory store which is related to different senses. Information in the sensory store stays here for a few seconds and only what is paid attention to will continue into the short-term memory (STM) store. STM is limited in both capacity and duration. Information in the STM store must then be rehearsed and repeated before it can enter the long term memory (LTM) store.
Explain schema theory with reference to one study.
A schema is a mental representation that helps us to understand and predict the world that we live in. It is the way we organize categories of information and the relationships among them. Schema influence attention and learning. Piaget, the Swiss psychologist, said that learning is a combination of accommodation (when we change schema based on new information) and assimilation (when we add information to existing schema). We also tend to notice things that are in line with our schema and there is the possibility that we forget or distort memories of things that are not in line with our schema.
Explain reconstructive memory with reference to one study.
Reconstructive memory is the idea that memory is not a passive retrieval of information, but rather an active process influenced by prior knowledge, beliefs, expectations, and schemas. According to schema theory, people use mental frameworks built from past experiences to help make sense of new information. These schemas can influence both the encoding and retrieval of episodic memories, often leading to memory distortions.
This means that rather than being like a photographic snapshot, our memories are reconstructed based on what actually happened and what we believe or assume happened. This process can be especially unreliable when misleading information is introduced after the event, leading to what is known as the misinformation effect. For example, leading questions in eyewitness testimony may alter memory recall, suggesting that memory is vulnerable to external influences.
Explain one model of thinking and decision-making with reference to one study.
The Dual Process Model of thinking and decision-making postulates that there are two basic models of thinking System 1 and System 2:
- System 1 :
- fast
- intuitive
- based on experiences
- efficient processing
- prone to errors
i.e. driving on familiar routes
- System 2 :
- slow
- deliberate
- rational
- logical
- less prone to errors
- assumed to require more effort
- analyse what, why
- assess future scenarios → how we might influence the situation
i.e. purchasing real estate
This model highlights the interplay between efficiency and precision in cognitive functions, emphasizing the appropriate use of each system depending on the situation.
Explain the Working Memory Model with reference to one study.
Suggests that STM is not a single store but rather consists of a number of different stores. There are separate STM components for visual information and verbal information. Composed of central executive, phonological loop, episodic buffer, and visuospatial sketchpad. Central executive controls what is paid attention to and what subsystems are used to process information. Phonological loop contains articulatory control system which acts like an inner voice to rehearse information and converts written material into articulatory code. Visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial information. Episodic buffer holds information until it is needed.
Explain one bias in thinking and decision-making with reference to one study.
Anchoring
The tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered when making decisions. During decision-making, anchoring occurs when individuals use an initial piece of information to make subsequent judgments.
Explain one study of the influence of emotion on one cognitive process.
Flashbulb memories (FBMs), proposed by Brown and Kulik (1977), are vivid, detailed, and long-lasting memories formed during emotionally significant, shocking, or unusual events. These memories can arise from personal experiences, like winning a race or experiencing a disaster, or from hearing about major global events, such as assassinations or terrorist attacks. FBMs are believed to capture the moment of learning about the event, often described as being like a photograph imprinted in long-term memory. While FBMs are thought to be meaningful and enduring, their reliability and accuracy have been questioned by some research.
Explain one ethical consideration in one study of one cognitive process.
Bartlett - Informed consent
Informed consent means that before someone agrees to participate in a study, the researcher must explain the purpose and procedure of the study. In addition, the researcher must explain the persons rights - including the right to withdraw and that all data will be kept anonymous. Any potential negative effects of participation must be explained.
One ethical concern in this study is that informed consent may not have been properly obtained. Since the study was conducted in 1932, before modern ethical guidelines, it is unclear whether participants were fully informed about the study’s true purpose. They were simply asked to recall a story but were likely unaware that the researcher was studying memory distortion caused by schemas. If they had known, their responses might have changed due to demand characteristics (altering behavior based on what they think the researcher wants). However, without informed consent, participants were unknowingly part of a study on memory reconstruction, which raises ethical concerns. While Bartlett’s study was not harmful, modern research would require clearer consent to ensure ethical integrity.
Explain the use of one research method in one study of the reliability of one cognitive process.
Loftus and Palmer
Questionaire
Questionnaires are a research method where participants respond to a set of structured or semi-structured questions, often using scales or fixed options. They are useful for studying emotion and cognition as they allow for the collection of standardized data across many participants. For example, researchers might use questionnaires to assess the emotional intensity of memories and their perceived vividness.
Explain one ethical consideration in one study of the reliability of cognitive processes.
Loftus and Palmer
Undue Stress or harm
- psychological harm: should be protected from any more stress/harm than a participant would encounter in everyday life
- if unexpected distress does occur: therapeutic help must be provided
Explain the use of one research method in one study of one cognitive process.
Loftus and Palmer
Experiment
Experiments are used to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables. In an experiment, the research manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable while all other variables are held constant. Participants are randomly allocated to conditions and the environment in which the study is done is controlled to make sure that extraneous variables do not have an effect on the results of the study.
One example of an experiment is Loftus & Palmer’s study on how leading questions may affect one’s memory of an automobile crash. Participants watched a movie in which two cars hit one another. The participants were given a questionnaire with several questions about the accident, but only one question was actually important. One question asked the participants how fast the car was going when the accident occurred. For some participants, the question ended with “When the two cars smashed into each other.” For other participants, the word smashed was replaced with bumped, hit, collided, or contacted. The IV was the intensity of the verb in the leading question. The DV was the speed that the participants estimated. The researchers used an independent samples design, so the participants experienced only one condition. Otherwise, they would not have been able to carry out the experiment because the participants would have figured out the actual goal of the study.
As the data was quantitative, statistics could be calculated to see if the results were significant or due to chance. This showed that the wording of the question had a direct cause-and-effect relationship with the estimation of speed made by participants.
Explain the use of one research method in one study of the effect of emotion on cognition.
Brown and Kulik
Self report
Self-reports involve participants providing information about their own experiences, emotions, or behaviours, often through surveys or interviews. They are effective for studying emotion and cognition because they capture subjective emotional experiences and perceptions, which are difficult to observe directly. For example, Brown and Kulik (1977) used self-reports to explore participants’ vivid recollections of significant events, linking emotional intensity to memory vividness.
Explain one ethical consideration in one study of the effect of emotion on cognition.
Brown and Kulik
Right to Withdraw
The right to withdraw is an ethical principle in psychological research that ensures participants can leave a study at any time, without penalty or consequence. This right applies before, during, and after participation, allowing participants to withdraw their data even after the study is completed. It protects participants’ autonomy and ensures they do not feel coerced to remain in the study. Researchers must clearly communicate this right during the informed consent process and throughout the study to uphold ethical standards.
Explain one study of intuitive or rational thinking.
Intuitive and rational thinking are two systems within the dual-process model of thinking and decision-making. Intuitive thinking (System 1) is fast, automatic, and relies on heuristics, while rational thinking (System 2) is slower, more deliberate, and logical. These systems often work together but can also lead to different conclusions based on the nature of the task. Research on this topic provides insights into how individuals approach problem-solving and reasoning under various conditions.Goel et al. (2000) investigated these processes by examining brain activity during reasoning tasks.
