SAP Exam - Key Terms Flashcards
Anthropology
Scientific study of humans including their origins, behaviour, and physical/social/cultural development
4 subfields: biological/physical, archaeological, linguistic, cultural
Psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Sociology
Scientific study of human social life, groups, and society
Social Science
-Study of people, their activities, and relationship
-Aims to understand human society, culture, actions, attitudes, and behaviour
-Uses research inquiry model
Physical/Biological Anthropology
Studies where humans as a species come from, human evolution, and what makes humans unique
Subfields: paleoanthropology and primatology, human variation
Cultural Anthropology
-Study of human societies, cultures, and their development
Bipedalism
Ethnocentric
Believing that one’s own culture is superior to all others
Ethnocentrism
The practice of judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one’s own culture
Ethnography
The detailed, descriptive study of a single culture (based on observations/interactions with its members)
Kinship
-(Anthropology) System of social relationships based on family ties whether biological or social(marriage/adoption)
-Importance: understanding how human societies are structured, how individuals interact with each other, and how cultural norms/practices are transmitted
Reflexivity
-Being aware of how an anthropologist’s background, perspectives, and experiences shape their interpretations of the culture/society they are studying
-This self-awareness helps anthropologists produce more thoughtful, ethical, accurate research
-Importance: encourages anthropologists to critically examine their own role, biases, and influence within the research process
Linguistics
Studies human languages and how language affects/expresses culture
Subfields:
-Historical: compare the similarities/differences of languagee structures to understand how languages are related and how people migrated in the past
-Structural: study of how sounds are put together to make meaning (Noam Chomsky)
-Socio: study of how people use language within their culture to express status and context
Archaeology
Understanding past human cultures through the examination of historical/prehistorical physical remains and artifacts
Ethnology
Focuses on the systematic study of people and cultures from a comparative perspective
Cultural Relativism
-Franz Boas
-Anthropologists can’t compare 2 cultures because each culture has its own internal rules that must be accepted
-Everyone sees others through the lens of their own culture
Cultural Materialism
-Marvin Harris
-Materials/conditions within the environment(climate, food, supply, geography) influence how a culture develops, creating the ideas and ideology of a culture
-Cultural Materialists believe society develops on a trial-and-error basis - If institutions aren’t beneficial they’ll no longer exist
According to Harris, culture develops in 3 stages:
1. The Infrastructure - society’s material resources(tech/population/available land)
2. The Structure - society’s systems and institutions
3. The Superstructure - society’s ideas, values, symbols, and religion
Postmodernism
-Jean-Francois Lyotard
-Theory that critiques modernism
-In the context of social sciences it primarily challenges the idea of objective truth, favouring relative/subjective interpretations
NO OBJECTIVE TRUTH
Paleoanthropology
-Study of human ancestors based on evidence from the distant evolutionary past.
-Studies bone and stone remains of our ancient ancestors from millions of years ago
Primatology
-Studies the anatomy/behaviours of living primates
-Ethical considerations: ensure survival of all species, promote conservation and respect local animal population, prioritize animal welfare
Human Variation
-Biological anthropology
-Charles Darwin
-Study of the physical differences and similarities of existing human populations.
-Anthropologists studying human variation aim to find out how and why human beings are different and try to understand these differences from an evolutionary perspective.
Ego/Id/Superego
Ego:
Id:
Superego:
Classical Conditioning**
-Ivan Pavlov (research on dogs)
BEFORE CONDITIONING:
Food (unconditioned stimulus) → dog’s salivation (unconditioned response)
Tone (neutral stimulus) → no salivation (no response)
-DURING CONDITIONING
Tone (neutral stimulus) + food (unconditioned response) = salivation (unconditioned response)
AFTER CONDITIONING
Tone (conditioned response) → salivation (conditioned response)
Operant Conditioning**
-B.F. Skinner (Rats-skinner box)
-Using rewards and punishments to encourage/discourage behaviour
Positive Reinforcement - Adding something pleasant to increase a behavior
Negative Reinforcement - Removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior
Positive Punishment - Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior
Negative Punishment - Removing something pleasant to decrease a behavior
Defense Mechanisms
-Sigmund Freud
-The ego’s way of distorting reality to deal with anxiety
Neo-Freudians
Psychologists who modified Freud’s psychoanalytic theory to include social and cultural aspects
Archetypes
-Carl Jung
-Universal patterns of thoughts/images that is present in all human beings
Agents of Socialization
-People/institutions that shape an individual’s social development
-Teaches individuals the norms/values of society
Isolate
Children raised in near isolation within human households
Feral Children
Children deserted at a young age and raised by animals
Positivism
-August Comte
-Comte’s belief that society should be studied using scientific methods and empirical evidence, similar to the natural sciences.
Norm**
Social rules and expectations that govern behavior within a society or group, specifying what is considered acceptable and unacceptable.
Macrosociology**
Wide perspective, studies society as a whole, analyzes social systems/populations on a large scale
Microsociology**
-Concerned with the role/interactions an individual or small group of people may have in society
Social Darwinism
Pg 104
Created by Herbert Spencer
-Social Darwinists believe in “survival of the fittest”—the idea that the fittest people in society should survive/flourish while the weak(unfit) people deserve to live in unfortunate circumstances.
Ex. under social Darwinism the poor/elderly/disabled shouldn’t receive financial assistance since they aren’t fit enough to survive on their own
-Used to justify imperialism, racism, eugenics and social inequality at various times over the past century and a half.
-Very controversial
Looking Glass-Self**
-Charles H. Cooley
-Individuals base their sense of self on how they believe others view them
Chicago School**
-Theorized about how physical environment, social structures, and community determine individual behaviours
-Development of the symbolic interactionist approach
-Nurture over nature - studied with qualitative methods - their greatest liability
Psychopathy**
-Severe emotional detachment but they are good at pretending like they are normal
-Believe they are stronger than the rest of the population because our emotions make us weak
-They have a total disregard of right and wrong, and they have an inability to love
-Key characteristics: egocentric, lack remorse/guilt/empathy, deceitful, shallow
Robert Hare
-Psychopathy Checklist
-Measures 20 psychopathic traits.
-Used all over the world to identify the cluster of traits that only show up in psychopaths
-It was developed based on research from hundreds of psychopaths in Canadian prisons
Sociopathy**
Chlid Abuse**
Ableism
Discrimination against people with disabilities
Physical Abuse**
Involves assault or inflicting physical harm
Emotional Abuse
may include repeatedly criticizing the child or subjecting the child to an unhappy/disturbing environment
Sexual Abuse
occurs when an adult, sibling, or peer touches a child sexually or inappropriately
Neglect
The failure to provide physical/emotional necessities of life
Rites of Passage
Pg 138
-Ceremonial events/rituals that mark significant transitions/key milestones) in a person’s life, often from one social or cultural status to another
Stage 1: Segregation
-When a person is separated from the rest of society and from their original status
Stage 2: Transition
-Aka: liminal stage
-When a person is becoming their new self/learning their new role(transition between old/new)
Stage 3: Incorporation and Reintegration
-When a person is reintegrated into regular society in their new role
-Expected to assume new tasks and is formally recognized by society in their new status!
Prejudice**
negative attitude toward someone based on their group membership, like race or gender, without real knowledge or experience.
Discrimination**
unfair treatment of people based on characteristics like race, gender, or age, often resulting in unequal opportunities or exclusion.
Stereotype
fixed, oversimplified belief or assumption about a group of people, often based on limited or inaccurate information
Racism**
belief that one race is superior to others, leading to discrimination, prejudice, or unequal treatment based on race.
Altruism
selfless concern for the well-being of others –> acts of kindness or generosity without expecting anything in return
Behavioural Psychology**
-Based on belief that psychologists need empirical evidence obtained through experimentation to change human behaviour
-Emphasizes the importance of observable behaviours or scientifically proven intervention procedures
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor(birth-2 years):
-Experiences the world through senses and actions
-Begins to understand that objects exist even if they can’t be seen(object permanence)
Pre-operational(2-6 years):
-Develops language, and use of symbols, memory, and imagination
-Exhibits nonlogical thinking
-Is egocentric(can’t imagine world from someone else’s pov)
-(First half)struggles with conservation, reversibility, and centration
-(Second half)develops theory of mind - understand other people’s feelings/thoughts/perceptions and be able to predict behaviour
Concrete Operational(7-11 years):
-Develops logical thinking
-Develops ability to link concrete objects to symbols and use them
-Becomes less egocentric
-Decentration(see beyond just one aspect of a object/problem) –> doesn’t struggle with conservation and reversibility
Formal Operational(12 years-adulthood):
-Develops abstract thinking, problem-solving, and hypothetical questions
-Early in this period, becomes egocentric again
-Not all adults reach this stage
Fundamental Attribution Error(FAT)
-Tendency to attribute to others’ actions to their internal characteristics(personality trait) rather than considering external factors/situational influences
-Importance: helps explain how people interpret/explain the behaviour of others; highlights key aspect of human social cognition
False Consensus Effect
(Psychology)
-Common cognitive bias in which people overestimate how much others share their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours
Just World Hypothesis(JWH)
(Psychology)
-People tend to perceive the world as a fair and just place, where individuals generally get what they deserve(good things happen to good people; bad things happen to bad people)
-Cognitive bias that influences how we interpret events, make moral judgements, and treat others
Actor-Observer Bias
(Psychology)
-Cognitive bias
-Tendency for people to attribute their own actions to external, situational factors while attributing others’ actions to internal factors(personality traits)
-Importance: explains how individuals perceive their own behaviour vs the behavoiur of others
Deindividuation
-Loss of self awareness/personal accountability in group situations –> leading individuals to act in a way they typically wouldn’t if they were alone
-Phenomenon occurs when people feel less identifiable in a group resulting in behaviours that are more aligned with the group’s norms than their personal values
-Importance: explains how group dynamics and environmental factors can influence individual behaviour
Social Loafing
-Psychological phenomenon
-Individuals exert less effort when working in a group compared to when they are working alone
-People feel less accountable for their actions especially when individual contributions aren’t clearly identifiable
-Significant impacts on group performance/productivity
-Importance: explains variations in individual effort and performance within group contexts
Free Association Therapy**
-Sigmund Freud
A method used in psychoanalysis where a patient relaxes and says whatever comes to mind
Logotherapy
-Viktor Frankl
-A form of psychotherapy that tries to help the patient find the aim and meaning of their own life as a human being without accessing the medical aspect of mental health
-Based on the fact that the primary motivation in human life is the search for meaning
-Importance of finding a sense of purpose in life, particularly in the face of suffering/adversity
Lucy
-Discovered by American paleoanthropologist, Donald Johanson
-3.3 million year old fossil also know as “Salaam”
-Bone structure confirmed that Australopithecus afarensis was bipedal and walked upright.
Homo Erectus
Ability to sweat through its skin –> this allowed them to regulate body temperature so they could pursue prey over long distances, without overheating!
