S4 Verbal communication and intercultural communication

Question 1

Verbal communication

Answer 1

• Human interaction through the use of words, or messages in linguistic form.
• Colloquial usage: speech (oral communication), especially face-to-face.
• Academic usage includes mediated forms, written communication, and sometimes sign language.
• Logically, as distinguished from nonverbal communication, though in much communication these are complementary modes

Question 2

Top 10 languages, half of the world’s population

Answer 2

English
Mandarin Chinese
Hindi
Spanish
Standard Arabic
Bengali
French
Russian
Pourtuguese
Urdu

Question 3

Intercultural comm

Answer 3

Involves more than language skills, language cannot be overlooked as a central element in communication.

Question 4

I. Study of language

Answer 4

1. Components of language
2. Language and perception

Question 5

1. Components of language

Answer 5

Linguistics divide study of language into 4 parts :
1. Phonology
2. Semantics
3. Syntactics
4. Pragmatics

Question 6

Phonology

Answer 6

Study of the sound system of language – how words are pronounced, which units of sounds (phonemes) are meaningful for a specific language, and which sounds are universal (different languages use different sounds, it is often difficult for non-native speakers to learn how to pronounce some sounds)

Question 7

Semantics

Answer 7

Study of meaning – that is, how words convey the meaning we intend to get across in our communication. Sometimes, semantics focus on the meaning of a single word.
Different languages have different words for the same object but even different cultures that share a language, such as Great Britain and the United States, may have different words for the same object. Even within a given country there are semantic differences.

Question 8

Syntactics

Answer 8

Study of the structure of a language – the rules for combining words into meaningful sentences. In most languages, the order of sequence of the words affects meaning.
Learning a new language involves not only learning new words and their meaning, but also the particular rules that govern that language.

Question 9

Pragmatics

Answer 9

Study of how language is actually used in particular contexts; the focus is therefore on the specific purposes of language use.
It is not enough to know the grammar and pronunciation of a language: we must also know how to use the language.
A visitor would need to be familiar with the culture to know exactly what the word means in a specific context, and how to use it.
The meaning does not come from the words or the word order alone, but depends on other things like nonverbal cues such as facial expressions and vocal intonation

Question 10

2. Language and perception

Answer 10

Our perceptions are shaped by our language, which greatly influences how we see groups of people, ourselves, our important concepts.
Our language has given us a variety of pictures complete with attitudes – and much of what we hold true is actually quite incorrect.
In other words, we may have (pre)conceptions of others based only on the language we’ve heard (or used) to describe them.

Question 11

Negro / Black / African American

Answer 11

• 1960s, the term “Negro” was replaced by “Black” during the civil rights movement because “Black” stood for racial pride, power, and rejection of the status quo . “Black is beautiful” and “Black power” became slogans during this time.
• Late 1980s, Black leaders proposed that “Black” be replaced with “African American,” saying that this label would provide African Americans a cultural identification with their heritage and ancestral homeland.
• The changes in these labels impact those who use and hear the terms, as they have worked to strengthen group identity and facilitate the struggle for racial equality.

Question 12

Labels impact

Answer 12

Sometimes people feel trapped or misrepresented by labels, when others use labels that we don’t like or that we feel inaccurately describe us. Many times people use labels for others without any knowledge or understanding of their meanings, origin, or even current implications, and can demonstrate prejudicial feelings.
Ex: hispanic, oriental, native

Question 13

Language linked to social structure

Answer 13

The messages communicated through the use of labels depend greatly on the social position of the speaker. If the speaker and listener are friends or equals, then the use of certain labels may not be offensive or cause a rift in the relationship.
On the contrary, if the speaker and listener are strangers, then these same labels might invoke anger or close the lines of communication.
Ex : N word

Question 14

“Linguistic relativity”

Answer 14

Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf (20th century linguists and anthropologists)
The structure of a language affects its speakers’ cognition and worldview : possibility that grammatical differences reflect differences in the way that speakers of different languages perceive the world.
Controversial approach.

Question 15

“Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis”

Answer 15

Experiments on color perception and naming across language groups: for instance, how do different languages categorize colors? And is it more or less difficult for speakers of a given language to remember color shades for which their language does not have a specific name?

Question 16

Examples of Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Answer 16

Other empirical research included the study of pronouns and possessives. For instance, the Diné (= Navajo) language has no possessives (his/her/our/your), and we might conclude, therefore, that Diné think in a particular way about the concept of possession. In contrast to English or French speakers, they may think that it is less important for individuals to own things, and take a more communal approach to possession.
As for the Penan people in Borneo have only one word for “he,” “she,” and “it,” but they have six different words to express “we”: this might suggest that social cooperation or collectivism is an important value for the Penan.
Different ways various languages express formality and informality. English speakers do not distinguish between a formal and informal “you,” while French and Spanish use a special word (“vous” and “usted”), and German resorts to the capitalized version of third-person feminine singular and third-person plural “sie.”

Question 17

Linguists and psychologists

Answer 17

Human language and cognition is universal and not subject to relativistic effects, social scientists now tend to accept a “weaker” version of the linguistic relativity, claiming that linguistic categories and usage only influence thoughts and decisions

Question 18

II. Cultural variations in language

Answer 18

1. Attitudes toward speaking, writing, and silence
2. Variations in communication style
3. Variations in contextual rules

Question 19

1. Attitudes toward speaking, writing, and silence

Answer 19

In some cultural groups, including many European speech communities, speaking is highly valued. (Ex: The King’s Speech). A secondary, or less important, mode of communication is listening. Silence is sometimes viewed negatively.
By contrast, many cultural groups place a primary emphasis on silence and harmony, and a secondary emphasis on speech. They distrust speech (public)

Question 20

2. Variations in communication style

Answer 20

• Communication style combines verbal and nonverbal elements. It refers to the way people use language, and it helps listeners understand how to interpret verbal messages.
• Recognizing different communication styles helps us understand cultural differences that extend beyond the words we speak.
• 3 distinct dimensions of communication style:
  1. high-/low-context,
  2. direct/indirect,
  3. elaborate/understated.

Question 21

High-context or low-context communication

Answer 21

Edward Hall

Question 22

High-context communication style

Answer 22

• “Most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message.”
• Emphasizes understanding messages without directly stating the meaning in verbal communication – in other words, the meaning is assumed to be understood by the other person.
• Cultural groups around the world value high-context communication: people are encouraged to pay close attention to contextual cues such as body language and environment, and not just to the words spoken in a conversation

Question 23

Low-context communication

Answer 23

Places the majority of meaning and information in the verbal message. This style of communication is highly valued in many cultures where people feel it is better to get to the point, be explicit, and not leave things unstated.

Question 24

Direct/indirect dimension

Answer 24

Closely related to high / low context communication:
- Direct communication style: verbal messages reveal the speaker’s true intentions, needs, wants, and desires; the emphasis is on low-context communication.
- Indirect style is one in which verbal messages may obscure or minimize the speaker’s true intentions, needs, wants, or desires; the emphasis is on high-context communication.
- Some cultural groups (business contexts) value honesty, openness, individualism, and forthrightness
- Other groups prefer a more indirect style, as they favor preserving the harmony of the relationship over complete honesty.

Question 25

Elaborate/understated dimension

Answer 25

Quantity of talk that people value, and is related to attitudes toward speech and silence.
- The elaborate style involves the use of rich, expressive language in everyday conversation. In this style, a simple, assertive statement means little, and the listener might believe the opposite.
- In the understated style, simple assertions and silence are valued. Free self-expression is not encouraged, and silence is especially appropriate in ambiguous situations.

Question 26

3. Variations in contextuel rules

Answer 26

While recognizing that there are differences in communication styles, we need to avoid stereotyping specific groups in terms of style. No group uses a particular communication style all the time.
The particular style we use may vary from context to context: work, family, classroom etc, we alter our communication to suit these contexts.

Question 27

Code switching

Answer 27

We might communicate in one way in one culture, we might change our communication style for another culture. Ex: Barack Obama sometimes resorted to what conservative media called his “Black accent” when addressing African-American audiences

Question 28

Third culture style

Answer 28

Usually both persons try to adapt somewhat to the language and style of the other, creating together what is sometimes called a “third culture style” – that is, a style that is not exactly like either of the styles in presence.

Question 29

III. Language and power

Answer 29

1. Language and social position
2. Assimilation strategies
3. Accomodation strategies
4. Separation strategies

Question 30

1. Language and social position

Answer 30

Power = central element :
- Groups with the most power (Whites, men, heterosexuals) use a communication system that supports their perception of the world.
- The groups that are not dominant within the social structure – or co-cultural groups (ethnic minorities, women, gays) – have to function within communication systems that may not represent their lived experience. Nondominant groups therefore find themselves caught between the tendency to adapt to dominant communication, and the will to maintain their own styles.

Question 31

Co-cultural groups

Answer 31

They relate to the more powerful/dominant groups by communicating either nonassertively, assertively, or aggressively.
Within each of these communication postures, co-cultural individuals may :
- Assimilate (trying to become like the dominant group),
- Accommodate or adapt to the dominant group
- Separate from the dominant groups as much as possible.
In any case, there are both costs and benefits for co-cultural members when they choose which of these strategies to use.

Question 32

2. Assimilation strategies

Answer 32

• Nonassertive assimilation strategies: trying to fit into and be accepted by the dominant group. (“I’m not that different”) and self-monitoring (“I’d better be careful about what I say”), and, above all, avoid controversy.
• Assertive assimilation strategies: seek to downplay co-cultural differences and promote a convergence into existing structures. But they do so more forcefully than the nonassertive strategies, not giving priority to other’s need. These strategies may promote an us-versus-them mentality, and many people find it difficult to sustain them for long.

Question 33

Costs and benefits (nonassertive)

Answer 33

• Ex: women and members of ethnic minorities may use these strategies at work (especially if they feel that their job success depends on “not making waves”), mostly by keeping quiet when they hear offensive remarks.
• Potential costs: for both co-cultural members and the dominant group. The co-cultural person may experience low self-esteem due to the feeling that he or she cannot be authentic. Can foster an unhealthy communication climate that reinforces the dominant group’s social and political power.

Question 34

Aggressive assimilation strategies

Answer 34

Emphasize fitting in: co-cultural members using these strategies go to great lengths to prove that they are like the members of the dominant group. Some strategies are dissociating, mirroring (dressing and behaving like the dominant group), or even self-ridiculing.
The benefits of these kinds of strategies are that the dominant group does not see the co-cultural group member as “typical,” but the costs sometimes involve ridicule from other co-cultural members.
So these individuals may find themselves constantly negotiating their position with the dominant group while being isolated from their own co-cultural group.

Question 35

3. Accomodation strategies

Answer 35

Nonassertive / Assertive / Aggressive

Question 36

Nonassertive accomodation

Answer 36

• Blending in with the dominant group, but also tactfully challenging the dominant structure to recognize co-cultural practices. Strategies include increasing visibility and dispelling stereotypes.
• Benefits for both: co-cultural member is gently educating his colleagues and helping to change stereotypes of the co-cultural group.
• Might be criticized by others for not being more aggressive in trying to change the dominant structures.
• Don’t really promote major change in organizations to make them more inclusive and reflective of larger society.

Question 37

Assertive accomodation

Answer 37

Trying to strike a balance between the concerns of co-cultural and dominant group members.
These strategies involve communicating self, doing intragroup networking, using liaisons, and educating others.

Question 38

Aggressive accomodation

Answer 38

• Involve becoming part of dominant structures, and then working from within to promote significant changes, no matter how high the personal cost.
• Co-cultural may be seen as confrontational and self-promoting; however, they also reflect a genuine desire to work with and not against the dominant group members.
• Reap the benefits of being perceived positively by the dominant group and also have an impact on the organization.
• However, consistently use aggressive accommodating strategies may find themselves alienated from both other co-cultural members and dominant group colleagues for being too confrontational.

Question 39

4. Separation strategies

Answer 39

Nonassertive / Assertive / Aggressive

Question 40

Nonassertive separation

Answer 40

• Employed by individuals who assume that some segregation is part of everyday life in their society.
• Generally, people live, work, learn, play and pray with people who resemble themselves. This is of course generally easier for the dominant group than for co-cultural members.
• Some co-cultural individuals regard segregation as a natural phenomenon, but also use subtle communication practices to maintain separation from the dominant group.
• Perhaps the most common strategy is simply avoiding interaction with dominant group members whenever possible.

Question 41

Assertive separation

Answer 41

• Conscious choice to maintain space between dominant and co-cultural group members.
• Communication practices such as stressing strengths and embracing stereotypes, while some strategies such as communicating self and intragroup networking may also be used.
• One of the benefits: they promote co-cultural unity and self-determination. However, individuals might implement the strategies without having access to resources controlled by the dominant group.

Question 42

Aggressive separation

Answer 42

• Used by those for whom co-cultural segregation is an important priority. These strategies include attacking and sabotaging others.
• Criticize those who use assimilation or accommodation strategies.
• Co-cultural members do not have the power base that members of the dominant group have, these strategies do enable co-cultural members to confront pervasive discriminatory structures.
• However, they also risk retaliatory attacks by the dominant group.

Question 43

4. Moving between languages

Answer 43

1. Multilingualism
2. Translation and interpretation
3. Language politics and policies

Question 44

1. Multilinguism

Answer 44

• People who speak two languages are considered bilinguals, and people who speak more than two languages are considered multilingual.
• Rarely, however, do bilinguals speak both languages with the same level of fluency. More commonly, they prefer to use one language over another, depending on the context and the topic.
• Sometimes, entire nations as well are officially bilingual or multilingual: Canada, Belgium, Switzerland. De facto bilinguism: US.

Question 45

Reasons for bilinguism

Answer 45

• Need for intercultural communication
• Results from imperatives: people migrate, business expand to international markets.
• Language: prisonhouse, no escapt through learning of another language.
• Co-cultural group often develop argot: separate way of communicating that distinguishes insiders from outsiders in a group

Question 46

Interlanguage

Answer 46

It refers to the type of communication that emerges when native speakers of one language are speaking in another language.
The native language’s linguistic structure often overlaps into the second language, creating a third way of communicating.

Question 47

Different reactions to multicultural world

Answer 47

• Some work hard to learn other languages and other ways of communicating, even if they make a number of errors along the way.
• Others retreat into their familiar languages and customs.

Question 48

2. Translation and interpretation

Answer 48

How people understand each other when they speak different languages.
Because it is impossible to learn all the languages in the world, we sometimes must rely on translation and interpretation, two distinct but important means of communicating across languages.

Question 49

Translation def

Answer 49

Refers to the process of producing a written text that refers to something said or written in another language.
The original-language text of a translation is called a “source text,” and is translated into a “target text.”

Question 50

Interpretation def

Answer 50

Refers to the process of verbally expressing what is said or written in another language.
Simultaneous, with the interpreter speaking at the same time as the original speaker.
Consecutive, with the interpreter speaking only during the breaks provided by the original speaker.

Question 51

3. Language politics and policy

Answer 51

Laws and customs that emerge to determine which language is to be spoken where and when are referred to as language policies.
These policies often emerge from the politics of language use.
There are different motivations behind the establishment of language policies that guide the status of different languages in a place.

Question 52

Different policies

Answer 52

• To drive people to assimilate into national culture (French)
• To protect minority languages (Welsh, Irish)
• Language right for the citizens: Canada, Kenya, gov services available in either language
• Location: Belgium,
• European colonialism: strong mark in African, Asian and South American nations.

Question 53

Conclusion

Answer 53

Development of language policies: reflecting the tensions between the nation’s history and its future, between the various language communities, and between economic and political relations inside and outside the nation. In turn, language policies can help resolve or exacerbate these tensions.