S1 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION : AN INTRODUCTION

Question 1

Wade Davis

Answer 1

“The world in which you were born is just one mode of reality. Other cultures are not failed attempts at being you : they are unique manifestations of the human spirit.”

Question 2

Culture

Answer 2

A culture consists of unwritten and written principles and laws that guide how an individual interacts with the outside world. Culture determines how individuals see the world and how they interpret what is normal.

Question 3

Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (UDCD)

Answer 3

UNESCO, 2001. Articles 1 and 2 define cultural diversity

Question 4

Article 1 UDCD

Answer 4

Culture takes diverse forms across time and space. This diversity is embodied in the uniqueness and plurality of the identities of the groups and societies making up humankind. As a source of exchange, innovation and creativity, cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature. In this sense, it is the common heritage of humanity and should be recognized and affirmed for the benefit of present and future generations.

Question 5

Article 2 UDCD

Answer 5

In our increasingly diverse societies, it is essential to ensure harmonious interaction among people and groups with plural, varied and dynamic cultural identities as well as their willingness to live
together. Policies for the inclusion and participation of all citizens are guarantees of social cohesion, the vitality of civil society and peace. Thus defined, cultural pluralism gives policy expression to the reality of cultural diversity. Indissociable from a democratic framework, cultural pluralism is conducive to cultural exchange and to the flourishing of creative capacities that sustain public life.

Question 6

Intercultural communication

Answer 6

Intercultural communication between two individuals from different cultures requires adopting an attitude, a vocabulary and a communication approach adapted to the interlocutor so that the exchanges are fluid and to avoid any risk of misunderstanding, substantial and sometimes disastrous consequences.
Ex : Harvard Business Review says when there is consensus on price and service to offer in the context of a businesstransaction, but it does not materialize, 80% of those failures are most likely due to a cultural misstep.

Question 7

Nelson Mandela

Answer 7

“If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his own language, that goes to his heart”

Question 8

Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions

Answer 8

2005 : legally binding international agreement that declares support for interculturalism.

Question 9

Interculturalism

Answer 9

Recognition that culture is important and of equal value to all people, that forcing people to subscribe to one set of values can create tension between individuals and groups. It understands that human beings are multi-dimensional in nature and that cultural fusion has been, and will continue to be, a by-product of human interaction.

Question 10

Nation

Answer 10

Official language, legal framework and territorial reference but also the symbolism that nourishes identity, memory and belonging to a common society and a history

Question 11

Recognition (Charles Taylor)

Answer 11

Term based on the hypothesis that there are “links […] between recognition and identity”, identity here designating “the perception that people have of themselves and of characteristics. fundamental elements that define them as human beings

Question 12

Charles Taylor : recognition and identity

Answer 12

1. A person’s (or a group’s) identity is shaped not only by their internal self-perception but also by how they are recognized by others. Identity is not developed in isolation ; it is influenced by how others perceive and treat us.
   When individuals or groups are positively recognized, it affirms their identity and boosts self-esteem. On the other hand, misrecognition or non-recognition (for example, through stereotypes) can harm individuals or groups, leading to feelings of inferiority or alienation.

Question 13

Charles Taylor : recognition and multiculturalism

Answer 13

2. Taylor is deeply engaged with the issue of multiculturalism. In increasingly diverse societies, it is crucial to publicly and politically recognize the cultural identities of various groups. This recognition includes not just legal rights but also cultural practices, history, and identity. Failure to recognize cultural differences or denying fair recognition can result in social conflict, marginalization, and injustice.

Question 14

Charles Taylor : recognition and equality

Answer 14

3. Taylor distinguishes between two forms of equality :
   - Universal equality : where every individual is entitled to equal respect and rights, regardless of their specific cultural identity.
   - Recognition of differences : where justice involves not only treating everyone equally but also acknowledging and valuing cultural, religious, or ethnic differences in the public sphere.
   Justice requires a balance between these two forms of equality.

Question 15

Communication (Lustig and Koester)

Answer 15

“A symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual process in which people create shared meanings” It requires both verbal and nonverbal symbols.

Question 16

Cross-cultural communication

Answer 16

Comparison between two (or more) cultures, it thus refers to the communication between people who have differences

Question 17

Intercultural communication (opposed to cross-cultural)

Answer 17

It acknowledges the coexistence of multiple cultures in a single space. However, it goes one step further by focusing on the productive encounters that are constantly taking place between cultures.

Question 18

Culture (Milton’s definition)

Answer 18

“Learned and shared values, beliefs, and behavior of a group of interacting people”

Question 19

Intercultural communication (Myron W. and Koester, 1993)

Answer 19

It is “a symbolic, interpretative, transactional, contextual process” which implies the engagement of culturally-different people. 2. Cross-cultural communication

Question 20

Cross-cultural communication (Myron W. and Koester, 1993)

Answer 20

It is “the study of a particular idea or concept within many cultures…in order to compare one culture to another…. Whereas intercultural communication involves interactions among people from different cultures, cross-cultural communication involves a comparison of interactions among people from the same culture to those from another culture.”

Question 21

Pluralist orientation

Answer 21

Sensitivity to ethnocultural diversity and the rejection of any discrimination based on difference.

Question 22

Intercultural relations

Answer 22

Relations between members of groups or societies differentiated by culture (not by nationality)

Question 23

3 types of intercultural relations

Answer 23

1. Cultural export : transfer of certain traits from a specific culture to another cultural entity
2. Cultural import : integration and assimilation of foreign cultural characteristics
3. Cultural exchange : reciprocal process

Question 24

Intercultural communication (Richard E. Porter and Larry A. Samovar)

Answer 24

“Intercultural communication occurs whenever a message producer is a member of one culture and a message receiver is a member of another”
Communication is “a dynamic transactional behavior-affecting process in which sources and receivers intentionally code their behavior to produce messages that they transmit through a channel in order to induce or elicit particular attitudes or behaviors”

Question 25

5 elements coexisting in intercultural communication

Answer 25

1. Sender
2. Message
3. Channel or medium
4. Receiver
5. Feedback

Question 26

6 elements in intercultural communication (Kreitner R. & Carlene C.)

Answer 26

“The communication process is a chain made up of identifiable links. Links in this process include :
- sender,
- encoding,
- medium,
- decoding,
- receiver
- and feedback.”

Question 27

Geert Hofstede, Culture’s consequences (1980)

Answer 27

6 cultural dimensions according to which we can categorize each culture :
1. Power distance
2. Individualism / Collectivism
3. Masculinity / Femininity
4. Uncertainty avoidance
5. Long-term / Short-term orientation
6. Restraint / Indulgence
These dimensions provide an overview of the cultural reasons behind the existence of certain social norms and business practices

Question 28

Dimensions of culture (Hofstede)

Answer 28

1. Individualistic / Collectivistic : how personal needs and goals are prioritized VS the needs and goals of the group, clan or organization
2. Masculine / Feminine : Masculine societies have different rules for men and women, less so in feminine cultures
3. Uncertainty advoidance : How comfortable are people with changing the way they work or live (low UA) or prefer the known systems (high UA)
   4.Power distance : the degree people are comfortable with influencing upwards. Accept of inequality in distribution on power in society
4. Time perspective : long-term perspective, planning for future, perseverance values VS short time past and present oriented
5. Indulgence / Restraint : allowing gratification of basic drives related to enjoying life and having fun VS regulating it through strict social norms

Question 29

Power distance (Hofstede)

Answer 29

The extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally

Question 30

Individualism (Hofstede)

Answer 30

The fundamental issue is the degree of interdependence a society maintains among its members. It has to do with whether people´s self-image is defined in terms of “I” or “We”. In Individualist societies people are supposed to look after themselves and their direct family only. In Collectivist societies people belong to ‘in groups’ that take care of them in exchange for loyalty.

Question 31

Masculinity (Hofstede)

Answer 31

This is NOT about individuals, but about expected emotional gender roles.
In a masculine society, men are supposed to be tough. In a feminine society, the genders are emotionally closer. A high score (Masculine) on this dimension indicates that the society will be driven by competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by the winner / best in field – a value system that starts in school and continues throughout organisational life.
A low score (Feminine) on the dimension means that the dominant values in society are caring for others and quality of life. A Feminine society is one where quality of life is the sign of success and standing out from the crowd is not admirable. The fundamental issue here is what motivates people, wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what you do (Feminine).

Question 32

Uncertainty advoidance (Hofstede)

Answer 32

It has to do with the way that a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known : should we try to control the future or just let it happen ? This ambiguity brings anxiety with it, and different cultures have learnt to deal with this anxiety in different ways. The extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these is reflected in the score on Uncertainty Avoidance.

Question 33

Long term orientation (Hofstede)

Answer 33

How every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future, and societies prioritise these two existential goals differently. Normative societies, which score low on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion. Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach : they encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future.

Question 34

Indulgence (Hofstede)

Answer 34

It is the extent to which people try to control their desires and impulses, based on the way they were raised. A tendency toward a relatively weak control over their impulses is called “Indulgence”, whereas a relatively strong control over their urges is called “Restraint”. Cultures can be described as Indulgent or Restrained.

Question 35

The silent language (Hofstede, 1959)

Answer 35

He defined intercultural communication as a form of communication that shares information across different cultures and social groups. One framework for approaching intercultural communication is with high-context and low-context cultures :
1. High-context communication or message is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message.
2. Low-context communication is just the opposite, i.e. the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code

Question 36

Martin & Nakayama (Intercultural communication in contexts)

Answer 36

Issues and concern of intercultural communication, 3 perspectives :
1. Social psychological
2. Interpretive
3. Critical
Provide tools for effective communication in global context, amid all differences (culture, ethnicity, gender, religion).

Question 37

6 imperatives (Martin and Nakayama)

Answer 37

1. Self-awareness imperative : how one fits in the greater world and realise things about his personal ways of making sense and interpreting it
2. Demographic imperative : changing domestic and international migration (birth rates, religious diversity, tradition etc)
3. Economic imperative : issues of globalization (we’re more interconnected to the rest of the world, depend upon each other to survive and thrive economically)
4. Technological imperative : : increased use of communication technology also raises questions about identity and access to these technologies
5. Peace imperative : : This imperative becomes important as we realize how issues of colonialism, economic disparities, and racial, ethnic, and religious differences can be the cause of violence, war and political impasses.
6. Ethical imperatives : : This imperative calls for an understanding of the variety of ways that individuals can approach what they consider to be right or real

Question 38

“Global village” (Marshall McLuhan)

Answer 38

Fourth age “electronic age” : “Ours is a brand-new world of all-at-once-ness.’Time’ has ceased, ‘space’ has vanished. We now live in a ‘global village’…a simultaneous happening. Information pours upon us, instantaneously and continuously. As soon as information is acquired, it is very rapidly replaced by still newer information”